Modern adults are rarely without footwear, all too eager to cover their feet for everything from walking to the mailbox to relaxing on the back porch. And while shoes are, of course, frequently required (like for your morning coffee run, grocery shopping, and dinner out with friends), the outdoors offer a stellar opportunity to kick off your shoes and free your feet for a change.

Yes, despite the presence of dirt, sticks, mud, and uneven surfaces, you can—and perhaps should—ditch your shoes for your next ramble in the woods. Because going barefoot offers holistic health and wellness benefits, strengthens your feet, improves balance, and is just plain fun. Here’s how to do it safely and why you might want to consider hiking barefoot on your next outing.

The benefits of walking barefoot

There have been numerous studies documenting the benefits of walking barefoot, including strengthening foot and leg muscles, improving balance, and potentially reducing inflammation.

The physical effects stem from the fact that when barefoot, the small bones, muscles, and ligaments in your feet can move more freely than they would in typical footwear that reduces natural movement. This restriction can lead to physically weaker foot muscles, less stabilization when walking, and even flat arches.

The potential anti-inflammatory effects may be attributed to the practice of grounding or earthing, which involves your bare skin touching natural surfaces—as it would when walking barefoot. Grounding has been shown in small studies to reduce pain and inflammation, but more research is needed.

There are also more immediately tangible results to hiking in unshod feet, explains Paul Thompson, a podiatrist and founder of The Barefoot Movement, who specializes in barefoot neuromuscular training in New South Wales, Australia. “Traditional shoes often encourage compensations in our natural gait,” he says. “By returning to a barefoot state, we can utilize our entire body in a more balanced and efficient manner. This not only improves the efficiency of walking but also allows us to adapt more effectively to varying terrains.”

Translation: hiking barefoot could improve your balance and reduce your risk of injury. Thompson says that’s because the “heightened sensitivity translates into improved reaction times, enabling hikers to swiftly respond to terrain changes and avoid potential discomfort or injuries.” 

[Related: Learn how to use trekking poles]

But strengthening your feet, just like other parts of your body, takes time, so if you’re new to barefoot hiking, take it slow to protect your soles.

Transition wisely

Much like transitioning to barefoot-style shoes, slow and steady is the way to go when attempting barefoot hiking. After all, if you’ve spent most of your life in cushioned, overbuilt footwear, walking barefoot on any surface is likely going to take some getting used to.

So start with short barefoot walks on soft surfaces like grass. Then incorporate foot exercises into your daily routine. Perform heel raises by planting the balls of your feet and lifting your heels off the ground while squeezing a tennis ball between your heels. Or a technique called “short foot,” where you stand up straight with bare feet, spread your toes, and strive to raise your arches while keeping your heels and the balls of your feet firmly planted.

All of this will strengthen your feet and condition them to the novel feeling and workload of being barefoot for extended periods of time. When you’re ready to hike, Thompson says one short stroll a week is plenty at the start. As your feet become stronger and your soles toughen, you can progressively increase hike duration.

Safety first

When you hike, bring along a first aid kit and a pair of shoes or sandals in case you come to a section of trail you’re not comfortable traversing without foot protection. Slide them on when you need to and back off again whenever you’re ready.

[Related: First aid basics for your adventure in the wilderness]

Then, take it slow. You’ll likely need to pay more attention to where you’re planting your feet than you do while wearing shoes. That means you may end up hiking a bit more slowly than you’re used to, but it also means you’ll be experiencing your surroundings in a more immersive way. So take your time and enjoy the journey.

Find a trail

When it comes to picking the perfect trail for a barefoot hike, some destinations can be more accommodating than others. In Celerina, a small town located in the Swiss Alps, for example, there are dedicated trails specifically for barefoot hiking.

But those are few and far between in the US, so depending on where you’re located, you may have to do a bit of research. One way is to find a local barefoot hiking group, several of which are scattered around the US. If there’s not an official club near you, check websites like Meetup or Facebook for barefoot-friendly hiking events. Even if you don’t want to join a group hike, you can ask for trail recommendations in your area.

If you’re searching on your own, focus on finding trails with ideal surfaces for hiking barefoot, at least when you’re starting out. These include grass, soft dirt, and sand. Even mud is often more fun barefoot than in shoes—plus, going shoeless keeps your boots clean.

Though there aren’t many high moors left in the world, Katharina Moosbrugger, hiking guide and founder of Naturerfahren, a nature-focused tour company in Austria, says these landscapes are an excellent place to walk barefoot thanks to the soft, spongy surfaces. But because these open tracts of land can hide deceptively deep bogs, you’ll want to opt for a guided hike through such areas if you’re not familiar with them. Otherwise, you could easily sink up to your shoulders in wet mud.

Once you’ve found a few ideal spots and are ready to liberate your feet from shoes, have at it. Just remember to take it slow, pick trails wisely, and enjoy the experience of being outdoors as nature intended.

The post How to start hiking barefoot, if you’re into that kind of thing appeared first on Popular Science.

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There’s no better indicator of the health of the oceans than the amount of phytoplankton that resides in them. That’s not only because this microalgae produces at least 50 percent of the oxygen we breathe, but also because it’s the start of the marine food chain, determining what other creatures live and thrive in any given area.

The changing seasons and the climate crisis may play a big role in the presence of phytoplankton over time, so it’s of the utmost importance for researchers to know what levels look like in oceans around the world. Sailors, boaters, and interested sea-faring travelers can help track and study this microorganism by using one simple tool: the Secchi disk. You can contribute to important citizen science by building one and taking it with you the next time you head to the ocean.

What is a Secchi disk?

A Secchi disk is an impressively low-tech piece of scientific equipment invented in 1865 by Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi to measure water transparency and turbidity. In deep-water ocean environments, these factors are determined by biological material like phytoplankton, explains Verena Meraldi, chief scientist for HX Hurtigruten Expeditions, a cruise line that invites passengers to participate in scientific data collection.

The tool itself is usually a round piece of white plastic with a diameter of 30 centimeters (about 12 inches), that is attached to the end of a tape measure or line marked at 20 centimeters (about 8 inches) and 1-meter intervals (a little more than 1 yard). 

We’ll explain in more detail below, but using a Secchi disk is easy: just lower the disk on a line into the water and record the depth at which you lose sight of the contraption. This measurement is called Secchi depth. Deeper measurements mean there’s less phytoplankton in the water, whereas shallow measurements indicate an abundance of the microalgae and therefore, a healthier environment.

Once you have a reading, you can log your findings in the Secchi app (available for iPhone and Android). The platform is part of the Secchi Disk Study citizen science program launched in 2013 by marine biologist Richard Kirby after a controversial 2010 report published in Nature that claimed phytoplankton levels had declined 40 percent between 1950 and 2008. Kirby’s initiative collects data to track the presence of this crucial microalgae worldwide.

Researchers have long collected data on phytoplankton by measuring ocean surface color using satellites. But this information is not enough, so this is where citizen scientists come in.  

“You need some means of determining in situ measurements, and the simplest way to do that is to measure the clarity of the water with a Secchi disk,” Kirby explains.

How to make a Secchi disk

There are two kinds of Secchi disks: the ones made to measure clarity in freshwater are painted in black and white, and are smaller than the white-only Secchi disks designed for the ocean. To participate in Kirby’s study, you’ll need the latter.

You can order a Secchi disk online, but you can also make your own, as they are easy to make and much cheaper, too.

[Related: How to become a citizen scientist]

Please note that some of the measurements in this project are in metric units. This is important because the Secchi Disk Study measures depth in centimeters, so the data you provide must be measured accordingly.   

Stats

• Time: 30 to 60 minutes
• Cost: about $8
• Difficulty: easy 

Materials

• 12-by-12-inch piece of wood, plastic, or styrofoam board, ⅛-inch or ¼-inch thick
• 50 meters (165 feet) of sturdy light-colored cord
• 2-pound fishing weight (or anything heavy enough to pull the disk down)
• (Optional) 4-inch eyebolt
• (Optional) 2 washers
• (Optional) 2 hex nuts
• (Optional) 50-meter (165-foot) fiberglass surveyors tape
• (Optional) White matte paint
• (Optional) Carabiner

Tools

• Heavy-duty scissors, box cutter, or saw
• Measuring tape
• 2 permanent markers of contrasting colors
• Drill
• Ruler

1. Cut a disk with a 30-centimeter diameter. You can craft your Secchi disk from just about any material, including metal or wood, though plastic is most common as it’s often easier to cut to size. A trimmed 5-gallon paint bucket lid, a thick signboard, or even a cutting board will work well. Just make sure that whatever material you choose won’t break easily and end up polluting the waters you’re trying to study and protect. 

2. (Optional) Paint your disk matte white. If the material you chose is already matte white, you can skip this step. If it’s not, paint your disk with matte-finish white paint and let it completely dry. You can use whatever you have at hand—just keep in mind that you may need more than one coat to get the required opacity.

3. Drill a small hole in the center of the disk. Use a ruler to find the center and drill a hole that’s just a bit bigger than the width of your cord.

5. Securely attach the weight to the bottom side of the disk. The weight can be a 2-pound fishing weight, repurposed link of mooring chain, or anything else that will help the disk sink. 

• Pro tip: “Be creative—you just need a lump of heavy metal,” Kirby says.

6. Mark your line. Once everything is knotted securely, use a permanent marker to draw lines on the cord at 20-centimeter intervals. Use the contrasting color to make marks at 1-meter intervals.

How to use a Secchi disk

Once you have your disk, head for the ocean. Make sure it’s at least partly sunny and that you embark ideally between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., as the angle of the sun will affect light penetration. Don’t set sail unless you’re accustomed to being on a boat, wearing proper safety equipment (like a life jacket), and know how to swim.

If you’re not comfortable on the water or don’t have a way to leave shore, no data is uninteresting, Kirby says. That means you can still join in and if you can only take readings once from a jetty or pier near shore where you live, you can still join in. Although the instructions below require a boat, you should be able to adapt them to wherever you are.

To pick a good reading location, Kirby says to find a spot at least 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) from shore where you can’t see the ocean floor, so around 25 meters deep (82 feet) deep. This depth and distance from shore will help reduce the amount of tannins and sediment obscuring visibility that could alter the measurement. 

Take off your sunglasses if you’re wearing them, and drop your clean disk into the water on the shady side of your boat. Keeping a firm grip on your measuring tape or rope, slowly let out the line. If you think it might slip from your fingers, tie it off to a secure surface for extra peace of mind. Watch carefully as your disk descends, and make sure it sinks vertically. If it doesn’t, the sinking weight might be off-balance or the current may be too strong, in which case you may have to make some adjustments and try again later.

Stop when you can no longer make out the disk beneath the surface. Raise and lower the disk a few times to pinpoint exactly the point where you lose sight of it. This will help you get the most accurate reading and make sure your eyes aren’t playing tricks on you. When you’re ready, record your Secchi depth by looking at your measuring tape at the point where it touches the water, or counting the submerged interval markers. You’ll need the average measurement when you use the app. Finish by opening the Secchi app at the drop site—follow the prompts and instructions to record your GPS location and enter your data.

You can repeat this procedure anytime you’re on the ocean. In fact, if you visit far-flung destinations or regularly return to the same spot, all the better: repeated readings from various times of the day, different seasons, and from hard-to-reach locales are extremely valuable for helping scientists understand how phytoplankton levels change over time and around the world.

The Secchi Disk Study has published two research papers on phytoplankton, with more in the works. That’s thanks to citizen science contributions: cruise passengers, avid sailors, recreational kayakers, and anyone who even occasionally takes to open water and wants to contribute to important and quantifiable environmental science. You can add yourself to that list now too.

The post You can help measure the ocean’s health with this homemade gadget appeared first on Popular Science.

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If there’s one thing hikers love to debate, is the practicality and functionality of the humble trekking pole. Some say it’s just an inefficient luxury item weighing you down, while others regard it as a truly useful tool that can improve balance and speed on the trail. 

Whatever camp you’re in, science has proven time and time again that trekking poles have multiple benefits, and using them correctly on every hike can help you get the most out of them. 

The science behind trekking poles

Hiking with trekking poles can provide plenty of physiological advantages. A 2020 review published in Wilderness & Environmental Medicine found that these tools can reduce the pressure and load on your lower joints by dispersing your body weight to your arms. This is especially true when hiking downhill, which means those with knee pain will likely find picking up a pair of trekking sticks incredibly helpful.

[Related: 10 time-tested essentials that can help you survive your next hiking trip]

And even if you have no joint pain, a 2000 study in Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise found trekking poles can make your trekking experience more comfortable. Erica Little, a hiking guide and owner of Big Bend Boating and Hiking Company in Terlingua, Texas, explains poles also provide substantial balance and stability when hiking through mud, snow, or across moving water or uneven terrain, making your hike feel easier than it is. That feel-good sensation will last even when you’re back home—several studies have found poles to be helpful at reducing delayed onset muscle soreness during challenging uphill treks. 

But these tools can provide more than better, more comfortable hikes. According to another study published in 2001 in Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, trekking poles could also help you hike faster and even increase the length and frequency of your stride. They could even help you burn more calories—a 2018 study by researchers at the University of Verona, in Italy, concluded that using your poles at an angle on flat terrain (a discipline known as Nordic walking) requires more energy than a regular walk because it invites your arms to aid in pushing you up or lowering you down. 

For starters, trekking poles need to be at the right height, says Little. When you’re on level ground (or close to it), adjust your poles so that your forearms and biceps form a 90-degree angle when your hands are on the grips, and the tips are resting on the ground a few inches away from your little toes. This will offer the most comfortable position for your arms and the best leverage for pushing yourself up.

When hiking uphill, shorten the poles by a few inches—the steeper the slope, the shorter the poles should be. If your hands are above your shoulders before taking the new step, you won’t have the leverage or power you need to push yourself up, explains Gates Richards, associate director of wilderness medicine at the National Outdoor Leadership School.

When hiking downhill, lengthen your poles by a few inches to help keep you balanced and upright, while allowing your arms to better aid in lowering you with each step, Richards adds.

Whether you’re hiking up or down, Little instructs to keep your arms and poles close to your body, ideally a few inches away from your sides while the tips rest a few inches away from your feet. It’s critical that the position feels natural to you, she says: if you keep your arms too close, you’ll lose some balance and leverage, and if you plant the tips too close to your feet, the poles could become a tripping hazard.

If you’re still unsure about your technique, Richards says there’s one easy way to tell if you’re using poles effectively: If you’re making progress easier, then they’re working.

Pro tips for using trekking poles

Once you’ve got your body-to-pole orientation down, a few tweaks will ensure maximum comfort and effectiveness. 

Start by using the wrist straps as intended: Slide a hand through each strap from the bottom up to get a little extra wrist support, says Little. Tighten the straps so they’re loose enough to easily slide your hand out again, but snug enough to keep your wrist from flexing too much.

Then, as you walk, alternate the swinging of the poles with your legs just like you would your arms when walking. This means planting the left trekking pole at the same time as you take a step with your right foot and vice versa.

On a steep uphill or downhill slope, if you need a little extra assistance raising or lowering yourself, you can also plant both poles ahead of you at the same time. This will provide a bit more stability and the combined power of both your arms.

Finally, stay safe by leaving extra space between you and the hikers in front and behind you. The tips of the trekking poles can sometimes get stuck between rocks and if the person in front of you stops abruptly to take care of it, you could collide with them. Likewise, it’s happened more than once that a hiker with trekking poles will reach back to adjust their pack without letting go of their sticks, creating a potential hiker kebab situation if the person behind them is too close.

Accessorize your trekking poles

When you purchase a new pair of trekking poles, they probably come accompanied by at least two sets of accessories. They’re both useful in specific situations, so don’t toss them out with the packaging.

The first one is a pair of rubber tips that fit over the metal points. They are multifunctional—pop them onto the ends of your poles to protect your luggage and its contents from getting stabbed while traveling. When hiking on rocky terrain or paved paths where you don’t need the traction offered by metal tips, these rubber protectors are excellent at silencing the irritating and repetitive tapping of metal on rock.

[Related: What to know before you go on your first multi-day hike]

The second accessory you’ll probably find is a pair of round, hole-peppered disks called baskets. They are designed for use in snow, mud, and sand—they’re like snowshoes to help keep your sticks on top of the soft stuff. “The bigger the basket the better. It’ll help your pole from sinking in too deep,” says Little.

Get the hang of it

If you’re new to trekking poles, you may find them awkward or unwieldy at first. That’s normal, Little says. Your first hike may feel a bit unnatural as you think too hard about when and where to place your poles with every step. Don’t worry, though: “It will become second nature,” she states.

As it does, you may choose to hike with one pole instead of two or ignore the wrist straps in favor of having the option to release the poles quickly in case of a tumble. Find what works for you and stick with it.

The post Learn how to use trekking poles and improve your time on the trail appeared first on Popular Science.

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If there’s one thing that instills dread in the hearts of hikers, it’s a steep uphill climb that stretches on for miles.

A relentless ascent is hard for one main reason: gravity. When you’re going up, you’re fighting against it, lifting your entire body with each step. The steeper the pitch, the bigger the strain on your legs to push you forward. And if you’re heading to considerable altitudes, you’ll also have to deal with low oxygen levels in the blood, which can make you feel wobbly and short of breath.

Fortunately, learning the right tools and techniques to use will help you tackle brutal inclines faster and more efficiently.

Embrace the switchbacks

One way to make climbs easier is to choose a switchback trail over a straight one whenever possible. 

“Switchbacks are your friend,” says Gates Richards, associate director of wilderness medicine at the National Outdoor Leadership School. Experienced hikers love to hate these zig-zagging routes because they may add to their overall mileage. But maximum efficiency while conquering hills means pacing yourself and saving your legs so you can make it back down safely. Switchbacks effectively reduce the angle of the slope you’re climbing, decreasing how much you have to lift your body with each step, and allowing you to save muscle energy in the process. 

[Related: Tips for picking the best hiking trail]

You may find switchbacks as an alternative to a straight, more direct route, but if they’re not available, you can make micro switchbacks by zig-zagging from side to side if the trail is wide enough. And if ping-ponging back and forth is your only option, don’t give into your impatience to make it to the top as fast as you can—cutting switchbacks goes against Leave No Trace principles. 

Take shorter steps

Taking large, slow steps in an effort to quickly push yourself to the top, is a surefire way to wear out your quads. This happens because longer steps mean your knee will always be bent and your muscles will stay activated throughout the climb, Richards explains. Instead, take short steps at a quicker pace.

Think of it like riding a bike. Shifting to a lower gear while cycling uphill allows you to keep the same cadence you had on flat terrain—you cover less ground each time you pedal (effectively going slower), but you have less resistance, so it feels easier on your muscles. It’s the same with hiking uphill: taking shorter steps at the same rate as usual will make for less resistance and an easier climb. 

Once you’ve shortened your stride, keep your attention on your legs. Each time you take a step, fully straighten the leg in front of you before transferring your weight to the other leg. That lets your bones bear the heft of your body for just a moment, taking the pressure off your muscles. And even if that instant of rest seems insignificant, Richards points out that all those seconds add up to much less fatigue during a long uphill battle.

Get some help from your trusty trekking poles

Science has shown that trekking poles are a useful tool when hiking uphill. They take some of the load off your muscles and joints, invite your arms to help your legs push you up the trail, and offer a great place to rest your forehead when you need to bend over and rest for a few moments.

Learning how to use them correctly is crucial to get all the benefits. With each step, swing the arm opposite to the foot you’re putting forward and plant the pole firmly. If the climb is particularly steep, you can get extra support by swinging both poles at the same time, planting them firmly, and pushing yourself up. Repeat.

Take a break

When you’ve got a long slog ahead of you, you may be tempted to push through the pain and just get to the top as fast as possible. But if the point of your hike is to enjoy yourself, don’t feel like you have to push it.

“If you need to take a break, take a break,” Richards says. Even pausing for 30 seconds without taking your pack off can be extremely helpful in boosting morale and giving your muscles some respite.

Don’t hesitate to take your pack off for 10 minutes and have a snack if that revives you. Or if you find that just a few seconds of leaning on a log to enjoy the view is enough to keep you upbeat and moving forward, do that. Either way, you won’t tire out as quickly if you take regular breathers.

Don’t forget to eat

Trudging uphill burns a lot of calories, so to keep your body energized, make sure you’re feeding it regularly. 

How often you refuel depends on how you feel, but Richards recommends eating what you’d usually eat during flat terrain hikes more often. So, if you usually have some fruit leather, jerky, or other snack every two hours when hiking on level ground, you might want to consider increasing the frequency to once an hour. 

Just don’t scarf down an entire burrito before a big ascent. It’ll feel like a rock in your gut the whole way up—that is if it manages to stay in your gut at all.

Get better, get faster

If there’s a challenging hike in your future and you want to be prepared, you can train your body for it. The best way to do so is to just hike uphill, says Richards—preferably, with a full backpack.

“The more accustomed you are to hills, the better your body will be at tackling them,” he says.

[Related: What to know before you go on your first multi-day hike]

Stairs or a stair-step machine will do if there are no hills near you. Imitating the movement will help you get stronger, but Richards says there are a lot more variables in the outdoors than on perfectly spaced steps, like heat, uneven ground, and differently sloped inclines. So when possible, always choose the real thing instead. 

Just don’t pressure yourself to be the fastest or most efficient climber—take your time and respect your own pace. After all, Richards says, hiking should be fun.

The post 6 uphill hiking tips to prevent your legs from turning into jelly appeared first on Popular Science.

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When you’re dehydrated, whether as a result of a heavy workout or something else, like eating questionable food or partying a bit too hard, reaching out for a bottle of ice-cold water should help you recover. But depending on how long your body has been losing H2O, that alone may not be enough to replace what you’ve lost—you might also need electrolytes.

Sports drinks may be an option, but if you’re not participating in prolonged exercise, you don’t need all the extra carbs and calories—not to mention that red No. 40 food dye. Fortunately, you can easily craft your own homemade electrolyte drink for a cleaner hydration solution.

Whichever you choose to make, Larson recommends you start by consuming your DIY electrolyte drink only after exercising. This will make sure your body doesn’t have a negative reaction, as you don’t want to suffer from gastrointestinal issues during your run or workout.

Larson’s electrolyte water

Ingredients

• 8 ounces of coconut water
• 8 ounces of a fruit juice of your choice
• About 1/16 teaspoon of salt

Instructions

Shake or stir all the ingredients together to combine. Serve chilled or over ice for the most refreshing quaff.

Kadey’s Maple Orange Hydration Beverage

Ingredients

• 16 ounces of water
• 8 ounces of orange juice
• 2 tablespoons of maple syrup
• 1/16 to 1/8 teaspoon of salt

Instructions

Shake and combine all ingredients. You can add ice if you want.

What even are electrolytes?

Maintaining a healthy balance of water in the blood is critical for stabilizing your temperature (thermoregulation), and keeping healthy and efficient cardiovascular and muscle function. 

Electrolytes are a group of micronutrients that includes sodium chloride, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. And while they’re all an important part of a healthy diet, when it comes to staying hydrated and maintaining the right amount of water in your blood, only one ingredient is indispensable for most non-endurance athletes: sodium chloride, also known as salt.

Sodium is the main electrolyte you lose when you sweat, making it the most important micronutrient to replace, Larson explains. And it doesn’t take much of a deficit to see negative effects. A 1994 study published in the International Journal of Sports Medicine, showed endurance athletes suffering from as little as 2 percent dehydration (meaning they’ve lost an amount of water equivalent to 2 percent of their body weight) may see impaired performance. Severe dehydration for adults begins at 10 percent, but you can start experiencing symptoms like headaches and dizziness at a 5 percent dehydration level.

Chugging copious amounts of water can sound like a solution, but it can also lead to hyponatremia. This condition results from a dangerously low concentration of sodium in the blood, which in extreme cases can cause potentially deadly pulmonary or cerebral edemas.

When to bust out an electrolyte drink

There are several ways to tell if you need electrolytes. If you are experiencing muscle cramps during exercise, don’t reach for a banana, as most bodies maintain a solid store of potassium. Instead, opt for some salt in the form of an electrolyte drink, as Larson explains there’s evidence that cramping may be a signal that you need a sodium boost.

If you’re running low on electrolytes, you may also experience a lack of energy or reduced performance, though not having enough carbohydrates to fuel your body may be a reason as well. This is why many store-bought electrolyte drinks and mixes contain sugar or other simple carbs, explains Kadey.

Finally, if you start feeling disoriented or confused, that could be a sign of dehydration or heat illness, and you should seek medical attention right away.

[Related: The truth about hydration hacks like IV therapies, alkaline water, and more]

If you’re not experiencing any symptoms, whether you need a bottle of water or an electrolyte drink to rehydrate, will depend on a host of factors. The average person sweats out between 17 and 67 ounces of perspiration per hour while physically active, which means you could be losing between 250 and 2,000 milligrams of sodium every 60 minutes. Where you fall within that range will depend on your body type and activity level (bigger and more active bodies need more electrolytes), the weather (higher humidity and temperature will result in more sweat and electrolyte loss), and the effort you’re exerting (more effort equals a higher sodium loss). Even altitude plays a part, and Larson recommends increasing fluid intake by 25 to 50 percent when exercising at altitudes over 10,000 feet.

Salty sweaters may need more sodium than the average athlete. If you regularly find white, chalky sweat rings on your workout clothes after they dry, you might consider pre-loading with an electrolyte beverage before you head outside, especially if you’re planning a long workout or you’ll be dealing with particularly hot weather.

Keep in mind that just because you’re sweaty doesn’t mean you need a sports drink. Your body maintains a reserve of sodium, so most of the time you can get away with staying hydrated with water if you’re exercising for under 90 minutes, or 60 if you tend to sweat profusely or work out in high humidity, says Kadey. Still, though—your homemade electrolyte drink will taste a lot better. 

The post 2 easy homemade electrolyte drinks that actually work appeared first on Popular Science.

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Drowning is the number one cause of accidental deaths in national parks in the U.S., which means that to safely cross a body of water in the wilderness, you should approach every creek, stream, and river crossing with caution and reverence. 

That’s how my husband and I made it across an aggressively running river swollen by three days of rain at Denali National Park. With a few mnemonics and the right technique you, like us, can cross rushing streams unscathed and without soaking all your gear. 

When water wets your way, remember WADE

In the outdoor community, guides, instructors, and trip leaders love a good acronym. And the first one Shannon Rochelle, curriculum director, and field instructor at the National Outdoor Leadership School, cites when it comes to water crossings is WADE: Watch, assess, decide, and execute.

Applying WADE in real-life scenarios means taking the time to scan your surroundings, and watch what the water is doing and how it changes. Try to figure out where the body of water is widest and deepest—wide crossings can mean more time in the water while deep water is more difficult to cross safely.

[Related: Some rivers suddenly change course, and we may finally know why]

Then, assess whether a crossing is feasible. You’re looking for water shallow enough to easily wade, slow-moving enough so you won’t fall, and far from dangers like waterfalls. If there are no safe conditions to cross at your location, it’s time to scout upstream or downstream for a better spot. After all, Rochelle says, just because the trail you’re on leads to water doesn’t mean you have to plow ahead in that exact spot. Instead, if the crossing looks sketchy, look for a braided section of the river, as these areas are often shallower and slower-moving. You might also want to wait and see if the flow ebbs, as a swollen river or creek could be the temporary result of recent heavy rain.

Rochelle has done both. She once spent three days and walked for many miles to find a safe place to cross a rushing river in the Wind River Range in Wyoming. On another occasion, she and her students set up camp next to a challenging crossing, placed markers along the bank, and watched for hours to see how the water rose and ebbed throughout the day to ascertain the time of lowest flow, which is often the safest time to cross.

In short, give yourself all the time you need to fully assess the situation and look for the best alternative, which sometimes might be to stay put or turn around. “You don’t have to cross now, you don’t have to cross here—you don’t have to cross at all,” says Rochelle. 

Learn your water-crossing ABC’s

If you thought WADE was the only mnemonic you’d have to memorize to safely cross a body of water in the backcountry, think again. All hikers and backpackers should also know their water-crossing ABC’s: Access, bottom, current, depth and downstream, and exit.

Access

First, consider how you will physically access the creek, river, or other moving body of water. Look for an entry point that offers an easy approach to the water itself so your first step isn’t the one that sends you swimming. Prefer a shallow area without a steep drop-off. A clear path without too much debris will help get your crossing off to a good start.

Wherever you cross, keep your boots on, and don’t get tempted into looking for a log or stones to aid in your quest. Rochelle says you shouldn’t be so dedicated to keeping your feet dry, as trying to balance your way across a slippery log or attempting to hop from rock to rock could result in more injuries than just cold feet. 

Bottom

Next, consider the bottom of the creek bed and what it’s made of. Rochelle explains that big rocks can be slippery and more prone to move and shift under your feet, so they aren’t ideal for safe crossing. A sand or pebble bottom will offer a more stable footing. 

[Related: For a better hike, try swapping clunky boots for barefoot shoes]

If you can’t properly assess the bottom of the body of water from the bank, you or someone in your party should take a closer look in a shallow, slow-moving section of the river or creek. The scout should enter the water without a backpack, wander out and back, and take a closer look to find the safest route across. The rest of the group should help spot from the bank and be ready to assist in case the scout loses their footing.

Current

There’s also the current to consider. “If the water is flowing faster than you can walk, you’d be better off finding a different place [to cross],” Rochelle instructs. To determine speed, toss a stick into the water and walk at your normal speed alongside it on the bank. If the stick outpaces you, the water is moving too fast, which means it’s not safe to cross there. Start searching for a different spot and start from A.

Depth and downstream

As a general rule, you want to find a safe crossing area where the stream only comes up to below your knees. If that’s the case, and A through C all look good, leave your pack straps snug and your waist belt buckled for improved balance. 

On the other hand, water that comes above the knees is much harder to walk through and can easily knock you off balance, especially if there’s a current. In that case, loosening your pack’s straps and unfastening your hip belt can make it easy to escape your pack if you fall into the water.

Unless there’s no current at all, Rochelle advises avoiding crossing areas where the water level is higher than your crotch. If that’s the case and you fall, you’re more likely to be swept downstream.

This is why you should also be aware of what awaits in that direction. If there’s a waterfall nearby, fallen branches or logs, boulders, or any obstacles that could trap you underwater or knock you unconscious, pick a new place to cross.

Exit

Finally, evaluate your exit. “You haven’t really found a good crossing until you’ve found a good spot to get out and actually gotten out on the other side,” Rochelle says. Here, the same rules to find an entry spot apply.

You may not always find the perfect crossing where all conditions are ideal, but with a bit of time and effort, you can hopefully locate an area with a balance you feel comfortable with. If you don’t feel confident you and your whole party can make it across safely, don’t make an attempt.

How did the hiker cross the creek?

Once you’ve found a suitable place to traverse, do so strategically, Rochelle says. Face upstream for the most stable position and use the tripod method to help keep your balance: hold a sturdy stick or trekking pole in both hands and lean onto it so there are three points of solid contact with the river bottom. Move only by moving one point at a time.

If there are others hiking with you, place the sturdiest and most sure-footed hiker in front, and have the others line up behind them facing upstream. Hold on tight to the waistband or backpack of the person in front of you and push down enough to help anchor yourself and them. The hiker in front creates a sort of eddy that enables everyone else to step sideways more easily, which you should do slowly and at the same time.

Remember, you haven’t successfully crossed until everyone in your group has safely arrived at the bank on the other side. And when you’re all finally safely across, congratulate yourself, dump out your boots, and think of the dry pair of socks waiting for you in your pack.

The post How to safely cross a running body of water on foot appeared first on Popular Science.

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We’ve all heard the stories: a happy hiker wanders into the woods, feels the call of nature, and having nothing to wipe themselves with, reaches for the nearest leaf. In a day or two, the itchiest rash of their life spreads all over their undercarriage and they’re writhing in pain. Nature’s toilet paper turned out to be poison ivy.

This plant instills fear in many a heart because of the terrifying reactions it’s capable of triggering when it comes in contact with skin. Fortunately, if you know how to identify poison ivy and treat a rash, and when to see a doctor, you may be able to dodge the worst symptoms and prevent your skin from looking and feeling like it was dipped in a vat of acid.

Why is poison ivy so toxic

To avoid the murderously itchy rash caused by poison ivy, it’s important to know what’s actually happening when you come into contact with it. 

Poison ivy leaves are coated with a mixture of natural chemicals called urushiol, a dense oil-based compound that you can also find in the plant’s stems and roots. That means poison ivy can cause reactions year-round, even in winter when the plant appears dead or dormant.

According to Teo Soleymani, a dermatologist and co-founder of California Dermatology and Mohs Surgery Specialists in Pasadena, it is urushiol that causes all the unwelcome symptoms: blisters, rashes, and an unquenchable itch that lasts up to three weeks. And because this chemical is invisible and hydrophobic—meaning it mixes well with your body’s natural oils—not only is it nearly impossible to tell if you’ve had a run-in with it, but it also penetrates the skin with excellent dexterity. Also, much like other oils, urushiol is difficult to wash off with just a shower.

[Related: 10 common plants that can hurt you]

But perhaps the most darkly comical fact is that on its own, urushiol is harmless. The aggressive reaction to this compound is actually caused by your immune system, which mounts an attack when the oil attaches to skin proteins, explains Eric Martz, professor emeritus at the Department of Microbiology at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. White blood cells vigorously bombard amalgamations they perceive as unfamiliar, causing inflammation and tissue damage—and making it a frontrunner for over-reactor of the year.

That said, not everyone experiences the same reaction post-contact. While there’s no such thing as immunity, Soleymani explains, some people are more sensitive to urushiol than others. Additionally, a reaction may not happen the first or second time you encounter poison ivy, as your immune system has to be sensitized to the plant before it has an allergic reaction. So if you touch the plant once and you find your body’s reaction to be mild, don’t think that means it doesn’t affect you. 

Avoid poison ivy at all costs

The only way to truly elude an aggressive reaction to this formidable plant is to avoid it altogether. But that doesn’t mean you should stop hiking, gardening, or playing outside—being aware of your surroundings and knowing how to identify poison ivy will usually keep you safe from a painful rash.

We’ve all heard the aphorism “leaves of three, let it be,” but let’s be honest: there are lots of plants out there that fit this description. The key to tell poison ivy apart from the rest of the “three leaves to a bunch” plants, is to check the shape of those leaves. On poison ivy, the two leaves on the outside of the trio resemble mittens with the thumbs facing outward. The leaf in the middle is more symmetrical with thumbs on both sides. The plant itself is a bushy vine and the stem will often have a tinge of red in it. 

Treat poison ivy rashes early and vigorously

Even if you only suspect you came into contact with poison ivy, Soleymani says you can prevent a full-blown outbreak by taking action as soon as possible.

Start by preventing a bigger problem. You can easily spread urushiol to other parts of your body and fellow hikers, so don’t touch the affected area and prevent other people from coming into contact with it. 

As soon as you can, and ideally within a few hours after exposure, wash and vigorously scrub the affected area with a strong detergent like dish soap, says Soleymani. Rinse and repeat several times—this will help break up urushiol and wash it away. 

Keep in mind that urushiol is incredibly stable and it can cling to fabrics, so you should definitely throw all your clothing and shoes in the wash. Wearing them again without removing any remnants of the sap could result in a rash the next time you put them on. 

If your pet has been traipsing in the plants, give them a thorough bath with detergent, too. Thick fur easily collects oil, which can stick around for weeks. And while the animal may not be bothered because urushiol may not make it all the way down to their skin, it can transfer to yours when you pet them. That means you could constantly be re-exposing yourself, warns Soleymani.

How to treat a mild case of poison ivy

If the window for early mitigation is past and your skin is already reacting, there are a few things you can do to ease your suffering.

If your rash seems to be irritatingly itchy but mild, and you show no other complications like swelling or difficulty breathing, you may be able to assuage the discomfort at home and skip a visit to your dermatologist or family doctor.

There are two main reasons a reaction might be mild. As we mentioned, you may not be fully sensitized to poison ivy yet, but age might also be playing to your advantage, as younger immune systems tend to react more aggressively. And even if there’s no immunity to poison ivy, a small percentage of people simply have a high tolerance to it.

Whatever the reason, don’t run out and waste your money on topical antihistamines that claim to treat the rash. Soleymani says they don’t work. Instead, apply hydrocortisone cream on the rash to reduce the itch, put ice packs on it to treat swelling, and take ibuprofen to tackle inflammation until the symptoms pass, which usually happens after a couple of weeks.

More good news: once a rash develops, you won’t need to be concerned about spreading the oil to others, as you can’t transfer urushiol at this point.

When to see a doctor for poison ivy exposure

First, and most importantly: if you think you might’ve inhaled aerosolized particles from burning poison ivy, you should seek immediate medical treatment. In such cases, the same well-known symptoms that pop up on your skin can appear in your airways, which can be extremely dangerous and even deadly.

[Related: 13 toxic wild plants that look like food]

Even if your reaction doesn’t seem too bad, you should also see a doctor if the rash appears on sensitive areas, like your face or genitals. Moreover, rashes on other parts of your body can get worse before they get better, says Soleymani. Make sure to seek medical attention if by day three to five you start presenting one or more of the following symptoms:

• Unrelenting itch
• Painful blisters
• Swelling

They will likely prescribe a series of topical and/or oral steroids to fight the reaction. If they do, follow your doctor’s instructions precisely. Even if it seems like symptoms are diminishing, the rash will likely come back if you stop the treatment before completion.

The post How to keep poison ivy from ruining outdoor fun appeared first on Popular Science.

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Trekking uphill often gets a bad rap for being difficult, exhausting, and capable of turning your legs into metaphorical jelly. But those in the know are aware that heading back down is where the challenge can get brutal. Because when you go downhill, your calves seem to shorten, your toes bruise from jamming into the front of your boots, and your knees ache from repeated relentless impact.

Fortunately, with preparation, the right tools, and the correct technique, you can make it back down after a climb without totally abusing your body.

Outfit your feet properly

If your toes and feet tend to feel brutalized after a long downward scramble, your footwear might be to blame. It’s all about the correct fit: A bigger shoe could result in blisters or feet sliding around, affecting your balance, while small footwear will make your toes pay the price as they ram into the front of your footwear on the way down.

[Related: For a better hike, try swapping clunky boots for barefoot shoes]

Before you go out, check your hiking boots—they should be fully broken in and fit just right, not too tight, not too roomy. Additionally, leave at least a thumb’s worth of space between the tip of your longest toe and the end of the shoe to make room for any swelling you might experience during long hikes.

Lacing techniques can make a difference, too. One way to keep your feet from sliding forward is to unlace your boots to an eyelet or two in front of your ankle and twist the laces around one another two to three times in a surgeon’s knot. Pull tight, repeat once more between the next pair of eyelets, then re-lace to the top and the knot will stay taut, locking your foot in place. Alternatively, you can also cinch your laces tighter before descending.

Find the right route

Route-finding plays a pivotal role in easier descents. So before you head down, Gates Richards, associate director of wilderness medicine at the National Outdoors Leadership School, recommends you scan the terrain ahead for the path of least resistance. Generally, that means picking the trail that’s least steep, doesn’t feature any large step-downs, or consists of wide, curving switchbacks instead of precipitous slopes. Opting for any of these may lengthen your route, but will decrease the angle of the pitch.

If you have the choice between a longer, but more gradual grade, and a shorter route with large rocks to step down, the smooth graded path will probably be less jarring on your body. “I’ll take distance over basically doing squats all the way down,” says Richards.

If there are no switchbacks in sight but the trail is wide enough, you can create your own micro switchbacks by zig-zagging from one side of the trail to the other via a slow and tight declination.

Whatever you do, adhere to Leave No Trace principles by staying on the trail and not cutting switchbacks. 

The biomechanics of hiking downhill

Adopting the right posture is crucial to safe and comfortable downhill hiking, says Richards. This entails positioning your center of gravity and your torso (the bulk of your mass) right above your knees, neither leaning too far back nor too far forward.

Once your posture is ready, focus on keeping those knees slightly bent as you walk. If your legs are fully extended when your heels strike the ground, Richards says your muscles won’t be able to help absorb the impact. That’s essentially having your entire body weight falling down on your bones and knees with every step, which can be jarring and cause lasting aches and pains.

At the same time, bending your knees will naturally force you to take smaller steps, which will help keep you balanced and in control and cut back on the stress the impact is putting on your skeleton. Keeping knees bent may invite more leg muscles to the party, which you will likely feel in full force the day after your hike. But it’ll all be worth it—sore tissue will bounce back much quicker than your pummeled joints and bones.

Master the technique of the downhill hike

Now that you know how to position your body, you’ll need to nail the technique of walking on a decline safely and comfortably. The key, Richards says, is a controlled descent, which essentially means slowing your roll.

“You want to feel like you could stop on a dime. If you don’t think you can, slow down,” Richards advises.

Maintaining control goes hand in hand with making things easy for you—giving into your personal preferences can help. Contrary to popular belief, there’s no one way to plant your feet as you’re going downhill, Richards says, and whether you keep toes pointing straight down or slightly outward, will depend on your own individual walking style. 

If you’re not sure about your own walking style, you can try different approaches and even mix it up every few minutes until you find something that feels comfortable or boosts stabilization. On a steep slope, you may even want to shuffle down sideways or turn to face uphill and carefully descend backward. Planting each foot slightly laterally will also recruit your hips to take some of the pressure off your knees.

If you’re carrying a heavy backpack, Richards also suggests loosening the load lifters—the straps that connect the top of the bag with the top of your shoulders—on the way down. This will allow the backpack to pull you slightly backward, helping you keep yourself centered over your feet.

Trekking poles can also help you stay balanced and upright, as well as take some of the pressure off your knees. Simply extend them until your arms form a 90-degree angle when the poles are planted a foot or so downhill from your feet. With each step, swing the pole in the arm opposite to the foot you’re putting forward and plant it firmly. If you need extra assistance on a large step-down, swing both poles at the same time. Then, with your hands on the tops of the grips, press down with your arms slightly.

Training for future downhill hikes

If the idea of going downhill is preventing you from exploring certain trails, you should prepare your body for them. Because you shouldn’t just train your leg muscles to push you up—they should be strong enough to lower you down, too. So if you still dread the downhill, consider tweaking your exercise routine to build strength and endurance for long descents. 

[Related: What to know before you go on your first multi-day hike]

Lee Welton, thru-hiker, personal trainer, and owner of Trailside Fitness, shares three exercises that bolster muscles to make downhills less painful. Perform three sets of 15 reps of each movement three to four times a week.

1. Forward step downs: Strengthen your quads and calves by standing with your right foot on a 6-inch step. Flex your right toes upward and lower your left heel toward the ground slowly over three seconds. Tap your left heel on the floor, keep your right foot flexed up, and return to standing. “Fast reps won’t do you any good. Slow and controlled is the key here,” Welton says. Use a countertop or wall for support if you need to, keep your hips level, and avoid letting your knee collapse inward as you step down.
   
2. Physioball hamstring curl: This is for the hamstrings, glutes, core, and calves. Lay on your back and place your heels on a large physioball. Keep your arms at your sides, tighten your core, and lift your hips toward the ceiling. Keep them raised and drag your heels slowly toward your behind, then push them back to the starting position and repeat without lowering your hips.
   
3. Elevated toe raises: “The big shin muscle, tibialis anterior, is responsible for pulling the foot up as the leg swings forward, as well as controlling the foot back to the ground after the heel makes contact,” Welton explains. This exercise builds a greater range of motion in your feet so you have better control on varied terrain. Stand on a step six to eight inches tall with your toes and mid-foot hanging off the front. Use your heel as an anchored pivot point and raise and lower your toes as far as possible over three to four seconds. 

Just remember: “If it was difficult going up, it’s going to be difficult coming down,” Richards says, but slow and steady will have you safely to the bottom in no time. 

The post How to hike downhill safely and comfortably appeared first on Popular Science.

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If you took a poll at a national park you’d find the grand majority of visitors have a bear sighting at the top of their camping bucket list. But those who don’t know how to store their food properly when spending the night outdoors will get a much closer encounter with these animals than they’d wished for. Because when bears sneak up right outside your tent looking for a midnight snack, they look a lot less cute.

In the best-case scenario, they steal your backpack full of vittles, leaving you without a morsel for breakfast. But in the worst-case scenario, your carelessness might result in personal injury and a bear that has to be euthanized.

This is why it’s crucial to be responsible when storing your food and anything else that might attract bears. Fortunately, there are plenty of ways to go about it that don’t require installing an electric fence around your campsite.

Food storage is important business in bear country

One free meal for a bear may not seem like a big deal as long as no one is hurt. But it’s still problematic because even if it’s the bear’s first offense, it almost certainly won’t be its last. 

Lana M. Ciarniello, research scientist and co-chair of the Human-Bear Conflicts Expert Team at the International Union for Conservation of Nature, explains that as soon as you reward a behavior, you condition the bear to seek out more of the same opportunities. This is especially true for bears who are used to humans. 

[Related: Bears can run at surprisingly fast speeds—here’s how they vary by species]

So when bears frequently pop up in camping sites it’s not the animal’s fault—more often than not, it’s the humans’. And these encounters usually don’t have a happy ending, as bears that do this are considered a threat and are likely to be euthanized. 

This is why proper storage techniques are paramount to safety in the outdoors. But not just yours—the bears’, too. 

While bears’ olfactory abilities are difficult to measure, experts at the National Park Service assure us they’re good. Really good—better-than-a-bloodhound good. That means these animals can detect the faintest of smells from farther away than you think. This includes your unscented deodorant or lip balm.

So even if an item is sealed (like wet wipes), or its label says it’s odorless, be safe and put it in the stash pile. Once you know what to put away, toss everything in a stuff sack, gallon-sized zip-top, or another durable bag, and get ready to store it.

So before you resort to more complicated solutions, make sure to check with staff at your destination to see if lockers are available.

Sounds simple, but “it is a pain in the ass,” Ciarniello admits. That’s because you can’t just throw a rope over any old tree limb, tie it off, and call it a day. Contrary to popular belief, bears are excellent climbers, so if you hang the bag less than 8 feet away from the tree trunk, they’ll scurry right up and chow down. And if you don’t hang the bag high enough, bears may be able to snatch it down without breaking a sweat. 

How high you need to hang your food will depend on the type of bears native to the area you’re visiting. If black bears are your only concern, a bag hanging 10 feet off the ground will do the trick, but in grizzly country, the ideal height is closer to 12 feet. So before you set off on your camping trip, make sure to ask a ranger what lives nearby and hang your food accordingly.

Tom Smith, a professor of wildlife sciences at Brigham Young University, says there are two main ways to make a bear hang: the single-tree hang and the double-tree hang. The single-tree hang is the simplest of the two. 

1. Start with a line about 25 feet long and tie one end around a weight, like a rock or a hefty piece of wood. 
2. Toss the weight over a sturdy tree limb at least 15 feet off the ground. Make sure you hang on to the other end of the line, as you don’t want the rope to make it all the way over. 
3. Once the line is over, remove the weight and tie that end of the rope to your food bag.
4. Pull the remaining end of the rope until your stash is at the desired height. 
5. Tie the rope off to the tree trunk.

[Related: Bears can count, take selfies, use tools, recognize supermodels, and even open car doors]

Alternately, Smith explains that if there’s a cliff or escarpment nearby, you can hang the food below the rim and secure the rope to a tree or bush. This approach will require you to be confident in your knot skills and extra careful when retrieving your grub, as slippery hands can result in having to forage your dinner or an early trip home.

To use one, Smith advises cramming all your smellables inside zip-top plastic bags and into the container. Take it 100 feet or so away from your tent and find a good place to stash it. Lash it to a tree trunk or shove it in a bush, otherwise, it may not be there when you come back for it in the morning. 

“Bears have been known to bat them around, playing kickball with them deep in the woods, making it very difficult for campers to find them,” Smith says.

Make sure to add stickers or reflective tape to help you identify your canister in high-traffic areas. This will be incredibly helpful if you’re packing up before sunrise.

Whatever method you use, make sure you store your food wisely while in bear country. It’ll help keep you and these majestic animals safe. And don’t forget the bear spray.

The post How to keep your food safe from hungry bears when camping appeared first on Popular Science.

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Hikers and backpackers are like cats: prone to wander and will sleep anywhere that fits at least 85 percent of their body. They both also get very cranky when wet.

Fortunately, there are plenty of ways to enjoy all the perks of spending a rainy day on the trail while staying safe and dry. Just check park websites or call the local ranger station before you decide to have a rainy outdoor adventure, as some parks close trails that are susceptible to excessive damage when wet.

But not all rainy weather apparel is created equal. Skip the slicker—it may be supremely waterproof but has no ventilation, which will turn the inside of your outerwear into your own personal sauna. And you don’t want to do that, since the goal is to avoid all moisture, including that coming from your own body. Instead, opt for a breathable weatherproof jacket, which will likely have a combination of features such as a special membrane, zippered vents, and high-tech materials. This kind of garment will be more comfortable when you’re huffing and puffing up a mountain, and start to break a sweat. 

[Related: Why you can smell rain—even though it’s odorless]

Once you’ve found a jacket (and rain pants if you’re especially moisture-averse), check the waterproof rating of your outerwear. This number indicates how much water a square inch of material can take before it starts leaking. It will likely be somewhere between 10,000mm and 20,000mm—the higher the rating, the best chance of staying dry in a downpour.

If you don’t like fitted jackets or want something that will also cover your backpack, you can turn to the trusty rain poncho. They may not be stylish, and in windy conditions, they tend to be a nuisance, but they’ll definitely keep you dry. Cheap plastic varieties can be prone to tearing, so bring a small coil of duct tape, just in case you need to patch a hole on the fly.

Rochelle is a big fan of these accessories and finds them amazingly useful. “It’s a portable dry spot,” she proclaims, pointing out that when hiking in the rain, you’ll likely want to keep moving so you don’t feel cold, and umbrellas offer the option to rest in place while staying dry.

Protect your gear

On a day hike, you may be carrying a bag full of essentials that you’d prefer didn’t get waterlogged. If you’re backpacking, there’s more to be concerned about, like protecting dry layers and your sleep setup. 

Options for protecting your stuff from moisture vary. One solution is to use a rain cover, which you might already have as they come included with many backpacks. These accessories shield your belongings from the elements, helping keep water away not only from your bag’s interior contents but also from everything stuffed in exterior pockets.

However, rain covers are far from perfect. They can get snagged by branches and easily pulled off, not to mention long-lasting or heavy rain can easily make its way through them. The inevitable result is pooled water at the bottom of the cover dampening all your gear.

A sturdy pair of leather boots will keep your feet dry and warm for longer, but they might not be practical. If you’re expecting to cross creeks that are deeper than ankle-high or spend days in a row hiking in the rain, your feet are going to get wet no matter what and your chunky boots will never dry out. Lighter boots or shoes will get soaked through faster, but will also be the first to air dry once the rain stops. 

You can try keeping your feet dry by wearing plastic bags over your feet and inside your boots, but this technique is strictly a short-term approach. Don the bags while crossing large puddles and small creeks and remove them as soon as you’re safely on the other side. Keeping them in place for long periods of time will result very quickly in sweat-soaked socks.

Whether you go for thick leather boots or lighter shoes, make sure you choose footwear with a sticky rubber sole and deep tread for the best traction on slippery, muddy, or wet terrain. And don’t forget to always pack extra pairs of dry socks if you expect wet conditions.

A pair of trekking poles can be useful if you’re concerned with slipping and falling. Just remember to keep three points of contact on the ground at all times when traversing treacherous surfaces.

But Rochelle says it’s important to balance environmental protection with personal safety. If mud is too deep or there’s a serious risk of slipping and falling, try to find a durable surface to walk on nearby, like rocks or gravel. And if that’s not an option, there’s no shame in retreating. Ask yourself if you’re dealing with a hike you should reserve for a drier day, and consider either picking a new trail or heading home.

First, check your access points to the water. If there’s a chance you’ll slip before you get there, rethink your approach. Then, look at the texture and size of the rocks on the bottom. Fine gravel is easier to navigate than large stones, which could be a slip or trip hazard. To test the current, throw a stick in the water, and if it’s moving faster than you can walk alongside it on the bank, the current might be too fast. 

[Related: Watch bobcats, bears, and even birds use fallen logs as bridges]

Next, use a stick or trekking pole to measure water depth, and keep in mind that anything at or above your knee comes with a higher risk. Continue by scanning downstream to check for hazards like waterfalls, big rocks, and trees that could trap you underwater if you were to slip and fall. Finally, have a plan for where and how you will exit on the other side. If after assessing the situation you feel confident in your ability to cross without falling, do so with extreme caution.

It might seem like a lot of preparation, but whatever you do, don’t let a little rain keep you from hitting the trail. “It’s totally worth it,” Rochelle says. “You might find you love it.”

The post How to stay dry and safe while hiking in the rain appeared first on Popular Science.

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When most people go hiking, they reach for stiff, heavy, boots with high-rise ankle support and thick soles. But others choose to go in the exact opposite direction and instead grab breathable, lightweight, flexible footwear that allows for more organic movement.

The concept of barefoot shoes is something of an oxymoron, but proponents of this style rave about the footwear’s ability to strengthen your feet and allow you to enjoy a more holistic experience outdoors. But hitting the trail in minimalist shoes requires some knowhow, lest you end up hobbling home with supremely sore feet–or worse.

The differences, however, are easy to spot if you know what to look for. Most barefoot shoes feature little to no cushioning, a thinner, more flexible sole, a wide toe box, and minimal arch support, if any. This design is based on foot anatomy and aims to allow more natural foot movement, feeling, and balance.

Barefoot shoes forgo some of the classic characteristics that pop to mind when you think of boots made for the outdoors, like narrow toe boxes and aggressive stabilization elements such as heel cups. But these minimalist hiking shoes can still offer features like high ankles, deep treads, and durable materials—after all, they’re still made for hiking.

Why barefoot shoes might be better for hiking

Most people don’t actually need any of the built-up features in conventional footwear, says Emily Splichal of the Center for Functional and Regenerative Podiatric Medicine in Chandler, Arizona. She is a functional podiatrist, human movement specialist, and educator on natural foot function. In fact, all that cushioning and support may be doing more harm than good.

Splichal explains that shodding your feet in footwear that highly restricts your range of motion can result in your feet becoming weaker from lack of use over time.

[Related: Walking correctly takes work—here’s how to improve every step]

Barefoot shoes, on the other hand, especially when combined with foot exercises like the ones Splichal recommends to her patients, do the opposite. A 2019 study from Brigham Young University in Utah showed that walking in minimalist shoes increases foot muscle size and strength. Plus, strengthening bones, muscles and tendons “can offer benefits all the way up your spine,” Splichal states. 

Other studies, plus anecdotal and anthropological evidence, also suggest that providing a wider range of motion to the feet (like barefoot shoes do) results in stronger, more stable muscles.

After all, our ancestors didn’t have super cushioning foam insoles or rigid arch support, and they got around just fine.

Potential health benefits of barefoot shoes

Most research on the matter has looked into the positive effects of barefoot shoes for running and walking, but don’t assume rough terrain is an exception. Splichal explains that the freedom of motion provided by barefoot-style shoes help train your body to move and respond to irregular surfaces–like trails covered in rocks and roots.

Less structured footwear can also help with balance, as allowing your feet to move and flex more naturally can unlock a natural stabilization response, Splichal explains.

So, if you step on an angled rock, a stronger foot and ankle, paired with a flexible shoe, can help keep you centered and upright and better able to react to uneven surfaces.

Hitting the trail with little between your skin and the ground also brings cognitive benefits. The slim sole on barefoot shoes will allow you to feel the earth beneath you, which a 2015 study from the University of North Florida, can help with memory retention. Plus, feeling the changes in terrain and the heat or coolness of the ground will provide a delightful boost in sensory stimulation.

For starters, while Splichal advocates for this type of footwear for most people, she mentions there are certain foot types that can’t control the freedom of motion a barefoot shoe offers and may not be able to wear them for long periods of time or may never be able to fully transition. 

[Related: How to save your feet from painful blisters]

This includes people with flat feet or feet that are overpronated due to ligament laxity. People with high-arched rigid feet may also struggle with barefoot shoes, as they often need the cushioning of conventional footwear to help absorb impact when walking for long periods of time. Foot injuries or plantar fasciitis can also make wearing minimalist shoes difficult, at first, but a slow transition can make things easier and more comfortable.

If you think you might have one of these conditions but are not entirely sure, a podiatrist like Splichal can help you make the determination. She even has instructional videos online about how to assess your feet.

How to start using barefoot shoes

If you decide to ditch your heavy boots and give barefoot shoes a try, you should do so slowly and with caution, as your feet won’t be used to the higher stress and load they’ll be experiencing. After all, you wouldn’t hit the gym after years of inactivity, lift the heaviest weights you can manage, and not expect to be sore the next morning.

So if you don’t have a foot type or condition that prevents wearing barefoot shoes, Splichal recommends transitioning by hiking on smooth terrain at first, which will help build strength, awareness and stabilization. And since your feet will be working harder than usual in the beginning, do the same thing you’d do after a strenuous workout: balance it with recovery.

Use a golf ball, small cork ball, or—Splichal’s favorite—a Neuro Ball, but instead of rolling it under your feet, stand on it. This will create pressure, which will result in a sort of deep-tissue massage to five points on the bottom of your feet: where your heel meets your mid-foot, the middle of your foot, the ball of your foot, the center of your arch, and the outside edge of your foot.

Then, work on strengthening your feet, which you can do while cooking dinner or watching TV. Splichal recommends an exercise called “short foot,” where you stand up straight, lift your toes, spread them out wide, and place them back on the floor. Inhale through the nose and as you exhale, push the tips of the toes down into the ground. Splichal says to use 20 percent of your maximum strength while engaging your core. Hold your toes down for the full length of your exhalation, then relax, inhale and repeat five times.

The post For a better hike, try swapping clunky boots for barefoot shoes appeared first on Popular Science.

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There’s nothing like the adrenaline-pumping thrills and the sense of childlike joy that comes with mountain biking. For beginners, however, getting into the sport as an adult can be daunting. Aside from the physical demand and the inherent risk involved, collecting the necessary gear, procuring an appropriate bike, and locating suitable trails nearby is enough to deter many would-be enthusiasts.

Fortunately, if you take it step by step and listen to the experts, you can start tearing up single track in no time.

If the thought of a hardtail doesn’t convince you, maybe you’ll want to go for a full-suspension one. As the name suggests, this type of bike has suspension in the front and the rear, which offers a cushier ride with less jostling and softer landings. But as you’d expect, comfort comes at a price, and a full-suspension bike could leave a hole in your wallet of anywhere between $1,500 and $8,000.

Dwight Follien, president of Groveland Trail Heads, an organization that builds and maintains mountain bike trails in Groveland, California, implores beginners not to assume one type of bike is better than the other. Instead, he recommends considering what types of trails you’ll be riding and how often. For example, if you’ll only be riding occasionally and almost always on smooth or non-technical trails, you may not need to splurge on a pricey full suspension.

On the other hand, if you’re sure mountain biking is going to become a full-time hobby and you hope to start conquering difficult trails sooner rather than later, it may make sense to invest in a nice full-suspension.

“You could have the nicest bike in the world but you’re not gonna have much fun if it’s not the bike for you or it doesn’t fit right,” says Tom Fure, owner of MQT Bike Rentals in Marquette, Michigan.

If you have no idea what size bike you should ride, online size charts can be helpful. But to ensure you get the best fit, Follien says going to a local bike shop and getting sized by experienced staff members is a great idea. Whether you buy used or new, they’ll be able to help you dial in the perfect dimensions by measuring your height, and the length of your legs and torso. 

Hitting the trails with a rental a couple of times will not only help you get a feel of what you like in a bike, but it’s also a great way to see if you enjoy the sport before making the investment. Just look for a reputable company that will help get you fitted and is on call in case you run into a problem or overestimate your abilities on your first time out.

For safety reasons, you should always hit the trails with friends—ideally ones that have more experience than you but remember that you’re still learning. 

“The worst thing that happens to beginners is going out with advanced friends,” Follien warns. You may not be able to keep up, tackle advanced features, or have the endurance for long climbs. Getting left behind can be frustrating, but trying out jumps and drops you’re not yet ready for could be dangerous.

Taking a beginner-friendly mountain bike course and joining group rides can also help build both skills and confidence. To find one, look for local mountain biking groups that state if and when their rides or classes are appropriate for beginners. As a bonus, Fure says group rides often attract experienced riders, mechanics, and bike shop employees who may be able to answer questions or give you a hand.

Trail etiquette also dictates that riders headed downhill should yield to those riding uphill, explains Follien. Sure, racing downhill is fast and fun, but it’s a lot harder for a rider going against gravity to start again after they’ve stopped.

Then all that’s left is to get out and have fun. “You don’t have to be an all-star or pro rider to enjoy the trails,” Fure says. “The more time on a bike you have the more comfortable you get and the more fun it becomes.”

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You’ve probably felt that spot on your toe, ankle, or heel heat up. A bubble starts growing and spreading, while thin layers of skin shred and tear: A blister is imminent.

These small pockets of fluid are a frequent nuisance among hikers, runners, backpackers, and anyone who’s ever gone out in new shoes without breaking them in first. But blisters don’t have to mean the end of an outing. On the contrary, this type of wound is easy to prevent and treat if you just give it proper attention early on.

The constant friction in a specific area caused by an ill-fitting sock or shoe, for example, damages the structural connection between skin layers and separates them. The body responds by building up fluid in the spaces between those layers to protect them from further damage and allow for easier and faster healing. 

[Related: You broke a bone in the middle of nowhere. Now what?]

The main problem with a blister is not its formation but the risk of rupturing the thin skin layer protecting the wound, also known as the “roof.” Without a roof, your raw skin will be exposed, requiring extra care to prevent infection. Needless to say, a ruptured blister is extremely painful and will surely make the walk or run back to the trailhead or finish line a miserable trek.

Fortunately, blisters don’t start out as massive, painful, fluid-filled bubbles. They typically present first as what Larson calls a hot spot: a small area on your foot that slowly starts to feel sore or sensitive. This means that addressing the issue right away can make your day a lot easier.

Sweaty or damp socks and shoes can increase the chances of blisters forming. If your day is likely to include long stretches of walking or running, choose socks made from synthetic, moisture-wicking materials. Cotton and other natural textiles just won’t dry up quickly enough while you’re hiking. Oversized socks don’t help either, as the extra fabric can bunch and rub, creating excessive friction and discomfort.

Likewise, make sure your shoes fit properly. They shouldn’t slip around on your feet when you’re walking but should leave enough room for swelling if you plan to be on your feet for most of the day. If you buy new hiking shoes, the general recommendation is to choose footwear half a size larger than you normally would. You should also break them in by wearing them around town or at home for a few days prior to any big athletic pursuits. The same rule doesn’t necessarily apply to running shoes, so the safest bet is to go to a specialized store and have your feet measured by a salesperson. They’ll be able to guide you through choosing the best shoe size and model for you depending on the distance you plan on covering and the shape of your feet.  

Heavy leather boots are usually harder to break in and often more likely to cause blisters, as they’re not as flexible or breathable as other footwear. If you’re hiking or backpacking and are prone to blisters, consider wearing lightweight boots or trail runners instead. If you know there are spots on your feet prone to getting blisters or your shoes feel especially tight in some areas, Larson recommends using kinesiology or waterproof first-aid tape to preemptively cover trouble zones and keep them from becoming a full-blown problem later.

Once you’re ready to hit the trail or pound the pavement, check your socks and shoes for debris. Remove any particles that might grate against your skin by dumping out your boots and turning your socks inside out. 

It doesn’t matter how many preventive measures you took: If you feel a hot spot or any sort of discomfort while you’re moving, Larson says you should stop immediately. Take a break and find the source of the irritation. Pay special attention to seams, debris, or loose socks, and remedy or remove the offender, if possible. To protect the spot from future aggravation, cover the damaged skin by slapping on a blister bandage or a piece of kinesiology tape. The latter is Larson’s favorite because it’s breathable, flexible, and sticky enough to stay put for days if necessary.

Dealing with a small blister that is soft to the touch (meaning is not entirely filled with fluid) is easy—just stick a blister bandage or piece of kinesiology tape directly over the offending spot. It should be large enough to extend beyond the boundaries of the blister area. 

But if the circumference of the blister is larger than a nickel or is fully filled with fluid and likely to rupture, you’ll need to carefully drain it first. To do so, wash your hands thoroughly and sanitize the skin around the blister with soap and clean drinking water, or an alcohol pad. Next, disinfect a safety pin with a different alcohol pad. If you don’t have one, you can also heat the pin over a lighter until the tip glows red. Just make sure to let the metal cool down before you use it to poke a small hole in the bottom of the fluid-filled bubble. Gently press on the blister to completely drain it out, and place a donut-shaped bandage around the outer edge of the wound or apply an adhesive blister bandage. This will prevent shoes or straps from pressing directly on the sensitive area. 

[Related: First aid basics for your adventure in the wilderness]

If the blister has ruptured or the roof is off, you should take special care to prevent infection. Wash your hands and clean the area thoroughly before placing the donut-shaped bandage around the wound, and then cover the area with a large bandage. If it’s really raw, say, if the roof has peeled back and your socks or shoes have been rubbing the wound for some time, use a hydrocolloid bandage. Larson also recommends making a jelly donut: use a moleskin donut bandage and cover the ruptured blister with 2nd Skin Squares, a jelly-like product that protects and moisturizes the skin to stimulate healing. Finish by covering everything up with a piece of kinesiology tape or an adhesive bandage.

With an open wound such as a roofless blister, preventing infection is your first priority, but Larson doesn’t often recommend applying antibiotic ointment. She explains that the cream can attract more dirt and keep bandages from sticking in place.

While she doesn’t prefer the latter, it can work in a pinch, especially if you cover the blister with a folded piece of tape (sticky sides together) slightly bigger than the circumference of the wound, and cover everything up with a larger strip. That will keep the adhesive from being in direct contact with delicate and damaged skin.

Larson is a big fan of hydrocolloid bandages, which are available at your local pharmacy. But be wary of traditional adhesive bandages, as they tend to slip off in the presence of sweat and moisture. She also suggests experimenting with different products to see what works for you but recommends you always keep some tape, a couple of alcohol prep pads, and a pin on hand, just in case. 

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I was 8 years old when I first learned the term “goose egg” can be used to identify more than an unhatched gosling. It can also describe the welt that develops after the goose that laid those eggs chases you away from its nest and bites you squarely on the meaty part of your behind.

After this educational experience, I was extra cautious around this goose (it lived by my grandparents’ pond), but did not realize I had escaped relatively unscathed. Unbeknownst to me, every spring brings fresh reports of people being attacked by what would appear to be angry geese. Those attacks often result in bruises, cuts, concussions, and stitches, many of which are far more serious than a welt on the backside.

Fortunately, there have been no documented cases of a goose killing a human in the US, but the creatures still inspire fear—or at least caution—in the hearts of many. There’s a reason cultures around the world have used geese in place of guard dogs.

But if you’d prefer to avoid being chased by a large bird as you stroll around the neighborhood park, follow this advice the next time you try to walk past a goose.

Why geese attack

Geese, like other animals, aren’t naturally aggressive—at least as humans generally define the word. These birds aren’t out to get upright bipeds; they have no particular vendetta that makes them want to bite soft young flesh or beat cyclists with their wings. Still, the animals will chase down just about anything: children, adults, bicycles, even cars, and frequently knock humans and other predators to the ground in impressive feats of agility and strength.

But when a goose lashes out, it’s not because it’s angry or mean. “Geese are typically only defensive when they have a nest they’re protecting or are defending their young,” says Vanessa A. Williams, a wildlife biologist and animal behaviorist who works with Wild Goose Chase, an Illinois-based company that specializes in wild bird management. “And they’ll attack anything they see as a threat to their nest or their babies.”

[Related: How birds of a feather flock together]

That’s because geese, unlike ducks, are monogamous—they mate for life and work with their partner to take care of their nest and babies. That means that while the female is incubating, the male is standing guard, ready to defend the nest and protect his mate. After the goslings hatch, he will fight to protect his whole brood.

If you look at the data, you’ll see most adverse human-goose encounters occur almost exclusively in the spring when nesting season begins and stop entirely by fall when goslings are fully mobile, WIlliams says.

Although goose attacks occasionally occur for other reasons, like if a goose or its mate is injured, this is rare, you can reduce your chances of getting rushed by one of these birds by simply staying away from their young and places you know they’re nesting.

How geese attack

Anyone who’s worried about getting chomped by a goose bill lined with tooth-like cartilage should know that according to Williams, my childhood encounter isn’t the norm. Geese rarely bite as a defensive strategy. Instead, they charge, using their strong wings as weapons.

I hear you: Bird wings may not seem all that threatening. After all, like most other birds that fly, the bones in goose wings are hollow. But because geese can weigh up to 25 pounds, the muscles in those wings are incredibly strong. They have to be to lift such a heavy bird into the air and carry it hundreds of miles at a time during migration.

So you really don’t want to be pummeled by those wings—they can quickly knock down a full-grown adult and cause scrapes, stitches, even broken bones. All of these injuries have been reported after goose assaults.

How to know when you might get attacked by a goose

But geese rarely go directly into blitz mode. They’ll warn you of impending doom first. If you get too close, they’ll hiss. Continue to approach and they’ll start honking, too. If you still haven’t left, they will spread their wings and charge. “If they hit you with one of those wings, it’s going to hurt,” Williams warns.

Fortunately, those initial warnings often lead to little more than a bluff charge as long as you respond by vacating the area as soon as possible. But how you do so matters.

Here’s what Williams advises: When a goose first lets you know you’re not welcome, start backing away—not slowly, but don’t run. If the animal stands down, you’re likely in the clear. If not, make yourself look large and menacing by holding your hands over your head or waving your backpack in the air. If you’re wearing a jacket, unzip it and hold it open, flapping the sides like wings. Keep facing the goose, because as long as you do, the animal will likely perceive you as a threat and do little more than bluff charge.

Whatever you do, Williams implores, don’t turn your back on the bird while it’s charging. You’ll make yourself an easy target, the goose may decide it’s safe to attack, and you might find yourself on the ground under a barrage of wings.

Instead, she says to continue backing away until the bird stops following you. When it does, you can turn around, but keep an eye on the goose to make sure it leaves you alone for good.

How to avoid an encounter with a defensive goose

If you’d rather avoid an encounter altogether—and who wouldn’t—the first rule of sharing space with wild animals is to keep your distance. How much depends on the bird. According to Williams, some geese will flee their nest immediately while others will start to feel threatened when you’re as far as 50 yards from them. So keep plenty of distance between yourself and geese, and the sooner you can create space between you and them, the better. And just generally be alert and listen for hissing.

The post Read this if you’re too scared to walk past a goose appeared first on Popular Science.

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Those little bottles of travel-sized toiletries you bought before your last trip may be convenient, but they are an environmental nightmare. Most facilities are not properly equipped to recycle small plastic tubes, tubs, and anything with a pump, so they probably won’t. Only 9 percent of plastics get successfully recycled worldwide, and at least 14 million tons of what’s left ends up in the ocean every year, making up for 80 percent of marine debris. 

More sustainable alternatives to these miniatures include products like shampoo bars and toothpaste tablets, but they can be expensive and hard to find locally if you don’t live in a large city. 

Fortunately, putting together a zero-waste toiletry kit for your next getaway doesn’t have to be complicated or spendy, and there are plenty of strategies that won’t require you to buy a single thing. 

Instead of purchasing new vessels, take a moment to scan your surroundings and see what might suit the task at hand. For example, a tiny glass jam jar like the kind you might find at an upscale diner is the perfect size for a week’s worth of face wash. Likewise, a breath mint tin is an excellent place to store a bar of soap, and if you use a non-aerosol variety, you can refill empty hand sanitizer spray bottles with hair spray. Even your child’s empty paint pots with screw-on lids or used-up sample jars that came from beauty counters are practically designed to carry your bathroom products.

Ketti Wilhelm, the author of the sustainable travel blog Tilted Map, has a less conventional idea: contact lens cases. If you wear contacts, you probably have enough of these to last a lifetime, and she explains they hold just enough face lotion or toothpaste (in paste or tablet form) for a weekend trip.

Creativity is key: Any container will do, especially if it has a twist top or a lid that latches. If you think it might hold anything from half a bar of soap to a week’s worth of conditioner, wash the container thoroughly, sanitize the inside by spraying it with alcohol, and let it air dry. Then designate a box under the sink or in the bathroom where you can stash the bottles or jars until your next trip.

Instead of using disposable wipes in non-recyclable packaging, bring a washcloth and facial cleanser. Wilhelm likes to pack small bars of face soap, which she tucks into the pockets of a folded washcloth. This technique saves space but also negates the need for a soap container.

You can replace cotton balls and cotton rounds by cutting 3-by-3-inch squares out of a clean cotton T-shirt or sheets you’d like to retire. You can even cut larger swatches, fold them over several times and sew the edges to create a thicker pad. After every use, wash your pad with gentle soap in the sink, wring it as best you can, and let it air dry.

Just don’t fall into the trap of thinking you need separate cases, stands, and covers for items like razors to toothbrushes. 

“Ask, do you need extra things to go on top of your things?” Wilhelm says. “It’s just part of re-examining the mindset of excess consumption that we’re so conditioned to.” 

If your toiletry bag has a separate compartment that fits your toothbrush, skip the plastic brush cover. If you’re really afraid your razor is going to slice through something, place a large binder clip or folded piece of scrap mail held in place by a rubber band over the blade.

“Minimalism sounds scary to people, but taking just a small dose of that perspective and rethinking all the products you use can be really transformative,” Wilhelm posits. 

But reconsidering your routines and the products you use is a process. She advises that as you strive for a zero-waste toiletry kit, you start by changing or swapping one thing that feels easy and approachable—maybe a product you’re not in love with and don’t mind replacing. From there, rethink what to get next as you finish your products one by one.

Whether it’s collecting small jars and bottles to use on your next vacation or committing to not using the products in your hotel room, make sure to remember that every bit of waste you reduce makes an impact in the long run.

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A lot can go wrong when you’re hiking or backpacking far from civilization: you could get turned around, become dehydrated, suffer from hypothermia, or get stuck in inclement weather. Whether you’re prepared for those problems depends largely on what’s in your backpack, so you’d better be carrying the essentials.

We’re talking about the Ten Essentials, a list first published by outdoor organization The Mountaineers in 1974. This group of items was designed to answer two important questions:

But for longer hikes in the backcountry, don’t skip any of these important items—even if you’re familiar with the territory or consider yourself experienced. “Stuff happens,” McClure says. “It just does. Eventually it’s gonna happen to you or someone you’re with.” And it’s always best to be prepared. To make packing easy, keep the first seven items in your favorite hiking pack all the time and toss in the last three (plus a map) before you head out the door.

1. Navigational tools

“Today we carry five tools for navigation in the backcountry,” McClure says. “These key tools are a physical paper map, a compass, an altimeter app on your phone or a watch with an altimeter, a cell phone GPS app, downloaded digital maps, and a way to contact first responders with a device such as a Garmin inReach.” Just don’t forget extra batteries or a power bank, especially if you’ll be using your phone to help navigate.

2. Headlamp

Few hikers who have gotten lost in the woods or fell behind schedule were probably anticipating being in the woods or mountains after dark. So no matter the length of the hike, pack a headlamp or flashlight. Sure, we all have cell phones with built-in lights these days, but those tend to drain the battery quickly, making your phone unavailable for emergency calls or digital maps. Just make sure your headlamp batteries are charged and bring spares, just in case.

[Related: How to remove cactus needles, even without tweezers]

5. Knife (and other necessary tools)

A knife or multi tool and repair patches are essential. Wrap a few layers of duct tape around your trekking pole or water bottle and carry a length of paracord and an adhesive patch or two on longer hikes in case your jacket or backpack springs a leak.

6. Fire

If the worst should happen, having a way to light a fire for warmth—or an emergency signal—can help you make it through an unexpected night outdoors. But items like matches and tinder are only helpful if you’re in an area with downed wood. Trails above the treeline or in the snow can be lacking in that department. So think more along the lines of whether you have the ability to heat water, McClure explains, suggesting items like a backpacking stove and lightweight pot.

[Related: What happens to the food you leave outdoors]

9. Extra water

Not enough water can quickly cause dehydration, especially in warmer months, and this can lead to a whole slew of additional health problems—it can even kill you. So pack at least half a liter per hour that you plan to be hiking and bring more than you think you need, especially on longer excursions.

10. Extra clothes

No matter the season or the length of the hike, always pack an extra layer. Even in the summer, temperatures can drop or wet weather can roll in, so bring an extra item of clothing or two. Depending on the forecast and where you’re hiking, that might be a cozy fleece, a rain jacket, or a lightweight puffer. Check the forecast before you go and bring that extra layer just in case.

The post 10 time-tested essentials that can help you survive your next hiking trip appeared first on Popular Science.

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If you’re ready to start planning your first multi-day hiking trip—or your first long one in a new destination—the process can seem daunting. After all, there’s so much to consider. Where will you hike? What sort of terrain can you expect? What gear will you need? What will you eat? Just take it one step at a time and you’ll be blazing a new trail before you know it.

If you fail to plan, you plan to fail

“Plan ahead and prepare” is the first principle of Leave No Trace for a reason: if you neglect to do so, your trip is practically guaranteed to be a rough ride. Imagine arriving at a park trailhead just to discover you have to have a permit you can only apply for six months in advance. Or getting a day into a hike only to realize how demanding the terrain is and that you’re not physically fit enough. Or that the weather changed and you didn’t pack a rain jacket. All of these scenarios, and more, could ruin an otherwise enjoyable trip.

Fortunately, a little research, planning, and preparation are often all you need to avoid many uncomfortable backcountry situations, explains experienced backpacker and guide Kirstie Mullikin from Explorer Chick, an adventure travel company that offers women-specific hiking trips around the world.

[Related: Hike farther and faster with these training tips]

Start by checking park or regional websites or calling ranger stations to see if you need permits or passes, and when you need to obtain them, Mullikin says. While you’re at it, find out if any hiking areas are closed due to dangers like avalanches or rock slides, what wildlife you should be prepared to encounter, and what you’ll need to bring to go to the bathroom.

Next, use weather trends and forecasts to inform your packing, including what layers you might need, whether you’ll require safety gear like microspikes on snowy passes, and if you should prepare for rain.

Depending on the trail and the area you’d like to explore, you may need to start the planning process months in advance. Grand Teton National Park, for example, requires hikers to apply for backpacking permits six months before their trip. But state parks and national forests may require no permit at all, or you may be able to pick one up the day you start your hike.

Pick a trail

Between national and state parks, as well as public land like national forests, the options are practically endless when it comes to deciding where you’ll hike. But if you’re new to trip planning, stick with a route that’s close to home, Mullikin suggests.

A hike within a few hours’ drive of your bed and shower will not only make the trip seem less formidable, but much easier to cut short if you realize you went in underprepared. You’ll also likely be more comfortable in familiar territory, especially if you’re inexperienced.

To find great spots nearby, ask around at local gear shops, search online, or use apps like AllTrails to get ideas and details. But choose a route carefully and take into consideration your personal physical fitness. Look at the length of the trail, elevation gain, altitude, and the time you have to complete the trek to decide if you have the skills and ability to successfully tackle the terrain.

Get fit

Speaking of fitness, you’ll need to prepare your body for the rigors of the trail. Depending on your current level of athleticism and the difficulty of the route, you may want to start training a few weeks or months ahead of time.

Start by simply hiking any accessible trails near you, preferably where there’s some solid elevation gain, maybe 1,000 feet over 2 miles or so, Mullikin recommends. If that’s not an option, stairs are the next best thing, she says. So hit the bleachers or make the StairMaster at your local gym your new best friend.

As your fitness progresses, start adding weight to a backpack until you are carrying however much you expect to be burdened with on your hike. For most new backpackers, that’s usually around 30 pounds, Mullikin says. “That way, you don’t get to the first day of the hike, put your pack on, and say, ‘Oh my goodness, what have I done?’”

Pack smart

As your departure date approaches, start thinking about gear. Your research regarding weather conditions, terrain, and destination will inform much of your packing list, like whether you’ll need a four-season tent, what layers are required, and whether you’ll need bear spray. Mullikin says she always starts with the 10 essentials: shelter (which includes a tent or hammock, sleeping bag, and sleeping pad when backpacking), clothing, food, water, navigational tools, fire starter, a first aid kit, a repair kit with a knife, illumination in the form of a headlamp, and sun protection like a hat and sunscreen.

After you gather the necessities, make sure it’s all in good working order. If you rent or buy new gear, know how to use it. Pitch your tent in the backyard and practice using your stove. If you borrow gear or are using items you already own, test them before you leave home and repair or replace any gear that has holes or needs to be washed or waterproofed.

Finally, turn your attention to clothing, Mullikin says. Bring enough to keep you comfortable, but don’t overpack. Clothing, she explains, is an area where most people go overboard. She usually brings one set of clothing for day use and one to sleep in and doesn’t pack much more unless rain or snow is expected and she may need to change out of soggy clothing. Use the weather forecast to inform your clothing selection and always bring a rain jacket, just in case.

Eat right and hydrate

Lastly, plan your meals and make sure you replenish what you use during the day, Mullikin instructs. For most people, depending on their current calorie intake, that’s around 3,000 calories a day for a multi-day hiking trip—more if it’s cold outside or your route is especially aggressive in terms of elevation. So check calorie content as you make or purchase backpacking meals, but also consider other nutrients like protein, fat, and vitamins, she explains.

[Related: Tips for picking the best hiking trail]

Pack snacks, too, like dried fruit and vegetables, protein bars, and treats—Mullikin’s favorite is peanut M&M’s—to munch on between meals and when sitting around the campfire. Many hikers tend to overpack food and snacks, she says, but it’s better to have too much than too little. Until you gain enough experience to know what too much looks like, err on the side of abundance.

The same goes for water. Bring more than you think you need and research whether there will be places to fill up along the way—like spigots at developed campgrounds or natural sources you will need to purify—or if you’ll need to carry all of your water for the duration of the trip.

Once you’ve researched, prepared your body, packed, and are ready to hit the trail, do so with confidence and enjoy your time in the great outdoors.

The post What to know before you go on your first multi-day hike appeared first on Popular Science.

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Anyone who grew up skiing, sledding, or building snow people in the front yard is intimately familiar with the chill in your extremities that slowly builds to an aching pain as you launch more snowballs, take one more turn around the rink, or hop back on the lift for one more run.

But toughing out frigid discomfort can have enduring ramifications if cold digits or facial features deteriorate into frostbite. In fact, losing portions of fingers, toes, cheeks, or noses is a real risk in severe cold. Fortunately, there are ways to help prevent that from happening and treat this appendage-threatening cold injury if you or an adventure buddy fall victim to it.

Frostbite tends to affect these areas for one reason: circulation. Or rather, a lack thereof. See, when it’s cold outside, your body’s automatic response is to redirect blood away from extremities and to your core where insulation in the form of muscle, fat, and organs can keep it from freezing (and where blood is the most important to survival).

But more warming blood in your core and less in uninsulated digits means the tissue in those unheated areas becomes more susceptible to freezing.

And when that tissue starts to freeze, icy crystals begin to form and expand as the water in your skin, cells, and blood becomes solid, explains Darby DeHart, paramedic and ski patroller at Brighton Resort in Utah. These crystals will pierce through tissues and cells like jagged microscopic daggers.

When that discomfort turns to pain and skin turns white, waxy, and doesn’t bounce back when pressed—or fingers or toes will no longer bend—the cold injury has advanced to frostbite and you’ll need to take protective action and seek medical attention as soon as possible.

[Related: How to stay warm when sleeping in the frigid outdoors]

Ideally, though, you should take preventative measures so you don’t have to think about diagnosing and treating cold injuries in the first place.

If fabric alone isn’t enough to keep the chill at bay, pack extra heat in the form of battery-powered heated socks and gloves or hand and foot warmers. These can be lifesavers in frigid temperatures and keep susceptible body parts toasty for hours.

Frostbite treatment tips

If a cold injury has progressed to frostnip or frostbite, DeHart says to rewarm the affected area as soon as possible, preferably indoors in water heated to between 100 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit—a little higher than your body’s normal temperature. Any hotter and you could do more damage, so low and slow is the rule. Submerge the affected area until it’s no longer white and waxy. 

But DeHart is adamant that you should only rewarm a frostbitten area if you’re absolutely certain you can keep the area warm. If you’re stuck outside with no heat, perhaps while winter camping or if you were injured while skiing and are awaiting help, it’s better to simply wrap the area to protect it from further exposure, but let it stay cold, DeHart instructs.

She explains that’s because when ice crystals perforate tissue, they aren’t clean and pointy like perfectly cylindrical icicles—they are irregular and misshapen. And if they melt and refreeze, they’ll do so in a different shape, puncturing tissue in new and terrible ways. This can result in more damage as frostbite starts disrupting dermal and subcutaneous layers deeper down.

When to seek medical attention

Any time you think you’ve suffered frostbite, head to the hospital as soon as possible. Still, it’s important to know that depending on the severity of the injury, healing may be a nail-biting process as you wait to see if you’ll end up losing part of the wounded appendage, DeHart warns. That’s because once damaged tissue is rewarmed, the affected areas may swell and turn purple or black over the next few days or weeks, a sure sign that amputation is imminent.

It happens because your body notices the microscopic punctures caused by tissue freezing and attempts to heal itself via clotting. But that cuts off circulation, often completely, and can result in losing a portion of the affected area, DeHart says.

Hospitals are trying to find ways to keep vasculature to damaged tissue open using clot busters and fibrinolytic therapy to keep circulation strong and prevent clots from forming, but this treatment is still experimental.

What not to do when you have frostbite

If you do end up frostbitten, there are a few things you shouldn’t do. If blisters form, don’t break or pop them because you may cause more tissue damage. And if your skin turns white and waxy, don’t rub or massage it to warm it back up. Your tissue is fragile at that point, and you could strip off the skin, DeHart says.

Stay safe and warm

Whatever you do, if a part of your body starts to hurt because of the cold, don’t tough it out or wait to give attention where attention is due. Especially because if you experience frostbite or frostnip once, you’re more likely to suffer from it again. Listen to your body, and if the cold is becoming an issue, deal with it immediately. “Preventative medicine is always the best medicine,” DeHart says. Not only could you save your fingers or toes, but you’ll enjoy your time outside more if you’re not in pain or discomfort because of the cold.

The post How to prevent, identify, and treat frostbite appeared first on Popular Science.

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Every year, national park deaths make headlines: someone is gored by a bison in Yellowstone, falls off a cliff in Yosemite, drowns in Lake Mead. But the real tragedy of injuries and fatalities in national parks is that many of them can be avoided.

The key to survival is preparation. Knowing the inherent dangers that come with spending time outdoors, the ways you’re most likely to bite the big one, and how to protect yourself and your loved ones will go a long way toward ensuring you make it home with riveting stories to tell.

Men suffer the most unintended deaths in parks—79 percent of the 990 deaths in the above date range, in fact—and the most likely way to go depends heavily on the park in question. You’re more likely to drown at Channel Islands National Park than bone-dry Death Valley, for example. The parks with the most deaths per capita, depending on which study you reference, are high alpine Denali, the mountainous North Cascades, and the ocean-encircled Virgin Islands National Park.

But passing a park entrance booth doesn’t automatically increase your chances of kicking the bucket. “While there may exist certain dangers within a park, that doesn’t make the parks themselves ‘dangerous,’” says NPS spokesperson Cynthia Hernandez. In fact, the mortality rate in parks is 0.1 per 100,000 recreational visits, which is extremely low compared to the 211.5 deaths due to heart disease and 16.3 due to the combination of influenza and pneumonia per 100,000 people in 2020.

1. Drowning

Drowning accounts for 33 percent of all unintentional deaths within park boundaries, an average of just over one per week according to NPS data. And as you might suspect, you’re most at risk at parks with bodies of water like Big Thicket National Preserve or the Channel Islands. So if you’re boating on, swimming in, or hanging out near water, take steps to keep you and your friends and family safe.

Start by making sure you’re actually allowed to go in the water before you decide to take a dip or a paddle, Hernandez says. If you’re not, don’t even think about it. If you’re free to splash and play, nominate someone to keep a watchful eye on swimmers, especially if there are children present. It’s also surprisingly hard to tell when someone is drowning, so make sure you and whoever’s on guard know the signs.

[Related: 5 things you can do to reduce your child’s drowning risk]

Always wear a personal floatation device like a life jacket, even if you’re a strong swimmer. According to 2018 US Coast Guard Recreational Boating Statistics, 84 percent of drowning victims were not wearing a life jacket. In many cases, one may have saved a life.

Finally, save the alcohol for after your day at the beach, as it can impair judgment and increase the chances you’ll engage in risky behavior. Plus, if you’re driving a boat, drinking while doing so is illegal in all 50 states.

2. Vehicle crashes

The No. 2 cause of death in national parks is vehicle collisions, which occur about 54 times per year and make up 31 percent of unintentional deaths. While that’s a much lower total than non-park related fatal auto crashes, it’s concerning enough to warrant attention.

So take extra care when driving in national parks. Follow all road rules, including seat belt laws, and take it slow. “Slowing down is the best way to avoid losing control on slick roads,” says Valerie Gohlke, public affairs officer at Grand Teton National Park, where wildlife and snow often create hazards on roadways.

Also, keep your eyes on the road, Hernandez says. That can be hard when you’re surrounded by beautiful scenery, but take advantage of pull-offs that offer the opportunity to take a break and enjoy the view. Stay especially alert in areas with abundant wildlife crossings and at dusk and dawn when animals are active.

And while it should go without saying: don’t drink and drive. Sobriety laws are enforced in national parks, too.

3. Falls

Falls account for 29 deaths per year in parks, or 17 percent of all accidental deaths, and could be the result of losing your way in bad weather and sliding down a cliff, getting too close to the edge to take a selfie, slipping on an exposed ridge, and rock-climbing accidents (Yosemite, a popular climbing destination, is high on the list of parks with fall-related fatalities).

So whether you’re hiking, climbing, or just snapping photos, know your limits, Hernandez says. Don’t try to push yourself farther or faster than you’re prepared to go, and don’t encourage others in your group to go beyond their limits. If you’re feeling reticent or tired, speak up; don’t put yourself in danger for someone else’s benefit.

[Related: How to avoid camping with snakes, and other valuable outdoor lessons]

Finally, stay on the trail. It’s when you start wandering off designated trails that you start getting into trouble when it comes to safety. Don’t walk and gawk, either. Meaning, if you’re going to enjoy the view, stop and do so—it’s easy to drift toward whatever you’re looking at.

Start by paying attention to the weather and opt out of exploring treacherous trails when dangerous conditions are on the horizon. Not sure how to read the weather in the mountains or know when heat illness is most dangerous? Ask a ranger, call the park office before your visit, and stop at the visitor center to ask for tips and important safety info like heat warnings or wind advisories.

Then, know where you’re going, how to get there, and pack all of the 10 essentials, including more water than you think you need, especially in warmer months. Wear appropriate clothing for the climate and always carry a map. Be prepared by knowing the difference between heat stroke and heat exhaustion and how to treat them, how to deal with altitude sickness, as well as by carrying safety equipment.

General safety tips

Although these may be the most common national park risks, you can prepare for many others by planning ahead, packing all the necessities, being aware of road conditions and weather patterns, and downloading any offline maps in advance so you’re not surprised by the lack of cell service in some parks.

Then create a backup plan in case your original itinerary doesn’t pan out due to weather, closed roads, crowded trails, or high water. And always share your trip details with someone back home so they can call for help if you don’t let them know you got back safe. Just don’t let fear keep you from heading outdoors to explore. After all, the vast majority of visitors to national parks have safe experiences, Hernandez affirms.

“Most folks that visit us thoroughly enjoy their time here and go home to their family and friends to tell them all about their experience,” says Gohlke. And even if you end up boring everyone with an hour-long slideshow, these tips will ensure you’re able to do so again and again.

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Picture this: you dig your camp water filter out of storage at the first sign of spring, head to the kitchen to make sure everything is in working order, and your heart sinks as water barely trickles through.

The good news is that the filter may not need to be replaced, it may just require a good cleaning and that you update your off-season storage practices. So to keep your camp filter flowing freely for as many hiking seasons as possible, take a few preventative and protective measures before you stash it away for a few months.

Many filters intended for camping, hiking, and backpacking get the job done via a hollow fiber membrane. These products remove unwanted material from natural water sources via a cluster of microscopic straw-like structures with holes so small that organisms like bacteria, parasites, dirt and microplastics can’t pass through. They’re a lot like a fine strainer that lets water pass through but traps your penne noodles.

And like a strainer, the more you pour through a filter without emptying or rinsing it out, the lower the flow-through rate will be. So if your filter won’t filter on the first trip of the season, it’s likely because any contaminants that didn’t get flushed out before you put it away may have grown, multiplied, or crusted over, making the flow sluggish at best and ineffectual at worst.

Flush out your filters

Start by backflushing your soon-to-be-stored filters. Most high-quality products come with a backflush tool that resembles the plunger on a syringe. Attach it to the end of the filter from which the clean water exits and use the plunger to force water backward into the device. This will help dislodge any stuck particles clogging filter pores. If your filter is dry, run water through in the normal direction first to lubricate it. If your filter is especially clogged or slow, you may have to flush it several times. This process can often restore up to 95 percent of a filter’s flow rate, according to Travis Avery, marketing director at filter manufacturer Sawyer.

If your filter membrane is hydrophilic, meaning it has a molecular attraction to water and is most efficient when wet, dry storage can cause problems. When one of these filters completely dries out, it can be difficult to get water to flow through again because air or other gasses may have become trapped in the membrane. These can be tricky to displace, Lundy explains.

[Related: Survive the great outdoors by making your own drinkable water]

Worse, if the filter wasn’t completely clean and sanitized when it dried out, particles and contaminants—even those that are invisible to the naked eye—can become caked onto the membrane, clogging the straws and making you think you need a new filter.

Think of filters like dishes, Avery says. If you rinse and wash your dirty dishes right after you use them, they’re much easier to clean than if you let them sit on the counter overnight to get crusty. Once that happens, scrubbing becomes an infinitely more tedious and time-intensive endeavor.

Dry storage

Avery advises dry storage, particularly for Sawyer filters that use proprietary self-priming membrane technology. These products aren’t as susceptible to trapped gasses interrupting flow. To dry out your filter completely, leave any caps or closures open and let it air out before packing it up. This might take a few days, depending on temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors.

Wet storage

Lundy, meanwhile, recommends storing your filter wet—the preferred option for LifeStraw products. But stashing your device full of tap water can lead to bacteria and algae growth, so you’ll need to use salt water to prevent that. Fill a bowl with 2 cups of water, add 1 teaspoon of salt, and stir until it dissolves. Force the saline solution through the filter in the normal direction of flow.

Put caps or lids in place to keep the salt water inside the filter and secure it in a zip-top bag or similar vessel before packing it away. This will help keep the hydrophilic membrane lubricated so it’s good to go when the next camping season rolls around. To flush out the salt water before your next use, blow any remaining solution out of the filter by pressing it to your lips and huffing and puffing into it in the direction of flow and flush clean water through it to clear out any remaining saltiness. If the filter functions like a straw, suck clean water through and spit it out until there’s no more salty flavor.

This works because continuous wetness helps these types of filters maintain the highest level of performance, Lundy says. That’s because hydrophilic membranes draw water in, spontaneously entering and filling pores. When wet, the membrane will not allow air or other gasses to pass through, which helps maintain a strong flow rate.

Camping water filter storage tips

Caring for your filter and protecting its flow rate isn’t the only thing you can do to prolong your product’s life. Cold temperatures are just as—if not more—detrimental to longevity as clogged fibers.

“Ice expanding can destroy the integrity of the pores,” Lundy says. That’s because when water freezes—including small droplets inside the fibers—it expands and can puncture or break fibers, making your filter effectively useless. So always stow used filters in a climate-controlled environment where there’s no risk of freezing. Filters that haven’t been used are not at risk.

And if your filter is particularly sluggish after pulling it out of storage, Lundy suggests soaking it in a solution containing a hydrophilic agent such as coconut milk: 4 tablespoons mixed with 2 cups of water. After one hour, rinse the filter clean water and voilà—hydrophilicity restored.

Whatever filter you own or storage method you choose, care for it well and it can last for years. Just be sure that no matter how you stored your filter, give it a good forward flush with clean water. Lundy even suggests performing another bleach rinse to ensure there has been no algae build up during storage. After all, you don’t want to take all the proper precautions just to take a nasty sip of who-knows-what on your next trip outdoors.

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No matter what time of year it is, wet, rainy weather keeps many would-be explorers indoors for days or weeks at a time. Quality rain gear can help you stay active in the great outdoors, of course, but it has to be in working condition. If it’s not, you risk sodden sweaters, at best, and hypothermia, at worst.

But when your rain jacket isn’t shedding drops like it used to, zippers are breaking, or tears or punctures are letting in water (or the chill), you might think waiting out the weather or buying a new coat are the only options. Fortunately, that’s not the case: there are ways to care for, repair, and restore your rain gear so you can enjoy the season, no matter the weather.

The former keeps you dry while allowing sweat vapor to escape during intense activities like hiking or playing football in the backyard. The latter is a type of polymer that manufacturers apply to the outer layer of fabric. What this polymer is made out of depends on the brand, but each one coats fibers and enables water to roll off instead of staying put and soaking through. At the same time, it allows sweat vapor to escape, keeping you dry from the outside in, but also from the inside out. 

That’s important because when water soaks the outer fabric, sweat vapor can get trapped inside, causing the jacket’s interior to feel wet and you to feel cold and clammy. You can avoid all of that, and keep yourself warm and dry, by maintaining waterproofing via regular care and maintenance.

How to wash a waterproof jacket

Every rain jacket, from budget-friendly models to thousand-dollar varieties, needs to be washed every now and then, but not just to keep it looking squeaky clean. Regular cleaning is vital to keeping your gear’s waterproof coatings functional, according to Ron Simonds, founder of Boulder Mountain Gear Repair.

According to Simonds, that’s because sweat, dirt, and mud—even near-microscopic particles—can get stuck in the fabric and open up tiny pathways where water can seep through. Sweat does so from the inside, where its acidic pH delaminates fabrics, rendering waterproof breathable membranes ineffective. And once that happens—you’ll see peeling tape over seams and blistering or bubbling material—there’s no repairing it. Regular cleaning can prevent all that.

[Related: 5 simple fixes to keep your clothing around longer]

But you can’t just toss your waterproof jacket in the wash with your weekly load of laundry, says Simonds, who estimates he’s repaired tens of thousands of rain jackets during his 35-year career. “Detergent soaps are the nemesis of your waterproof fabrics,” he explains. Together with fabric softeners, they contain harsh chemicals that delaminate the materials, leave behind residues that attract water, and otherwise diminish waterproofing. He says the only products you should use to clean your beloved waterproof outerwear are rain-gear-specific detergents like those from brands including Nikwax and Gear Aid. Unlike traditional detergents, which tend to reduce a liquid’s surface tension and leave residue that attracts water, these are designed to clean, but also maintain and protect waterproof coatings and breathability. 

As for how often to wash, that depends on how often you use your rain gear, Simonds says. If you wear a jacket every day of a week-long hiking trip and get it sweaty and dirty, wash it when you return home. If you wear it every weekend, wash it once or twice a year. If it’s something you wear daily, clean it once a month. But you should rarely wash rainwear more often than that, or you will shorten its lifespan.

To boost repellency further, follow each cleaning with a wash-in or spray-on water repellent treatment designed for your specific type of gear to restore the DWR to new or near-new condition. This works by re-coating fibers that may no longer be waterproof and reviving the surface of the fabric to encourage water to roll off instead of soak in. The packaging should clearly state that they are intended for waterproof, breathable outerwear. Make sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions, as some products require you to apply heat (like from a clothes dryer) to work.

Follow the wash with repairs

While washing and re-waterproofing are the most common and routine maintenance tasks you’ll need to perform, plenty more can go wrong with rain gear, including zipper malfunctions, tears, and delamination. Given all these potential problems, it’s helpful to know how to handle other fixes to extend the life of your rain jacket.

Two repairs Simonds performs frequently involve zippers and tears. Zippers, especially delicate ones on ultralight gear, can get stuck, break, or lose teeth, and they’re difficult to fix or replace yourself. You can, of course, always try to fix the zipper on your own, but there’s no shame in knowing when to call on a professional and send the garment to a repair shop that can get the job done quickly.

[Related: Tips for buying and caring for long-lasting fabrics]

If it’s lubrication your zipper needs, zipper grease or lubricant will work if you’re unable to run a load of laundry for a few days, but it will attract more dirt and grime in the long run. It can save you in a pinch, but you’ll need to wash the article when you get home to eliminate any residue and grit.

As for holes and tears, there are plenty of patch options you can buy and slap onto your outerwear to seal up holes. These will do nicely if that’s what you have on hand, but for a more long-term solution, Simonds recommends sending your jacket to someone who can apply special heat tape to really seal up holes and tears. Some manufacturers will repair their gear, but a repair shop will, too.

A tip from the pro, though: before you send any rain gear in for repair, make sure it’s not already delaminated or peeling. At that point, there’s not much any shop can do for your jacket.

Store your gear in a safe place

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A perfectly golden brown exterior, a gooey center, and a piece of smooth, dripping chocolate. There’s something special about s’mores that make them warm and cozy, and an indispensable snack at any campfire. And if there’s one thing I excel at, that’s making the perfect one.

The key is to heat up your marshmallows just right—but what that means exactly is often a controversial point of discussion around the campfire. If you like your white fluffy treats burned to a crisp and still cold on the inside, that’s your prerogative. On the other hand, if you prefer the warm gooeyness of a perfectly chocolatey s’more, you can use science to make it happen.

Similarly to cooking meat, you want to make sure the inside gets warm before the outside burns. After all, it’s the gooey center of the white fluff that makes a s’more so delightful, and this is exactly what this cooking method accomplishes. First, the relatively low heat (90 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit) breaks down the gelatin in the marshmallow almost immediately. The temperature also expands the air pockets within the sugary treat, making it larger and softer as it warms, turning the center into a sweet goo. Lastly, heat breaks the bounds linking fructose and glucose molecules to sugar, allowing the marshmallow to expand further and develop more nuanced flavors.

Next, when the marshmallow starts to puff up, move it closer to the fire. You want to place it where the tips of the flames may only lick at the mallow, not engulf it. At a temperature nearing 250 degrees, the Maillard reaction will kick off. This chemical process occurs when the amino acids from the gelatin and heated sugar interact, causing the exterior of the marshmallow to start browning and a developing toasty flavor.

At this point, your treat may start to sag or spin around your roasting stick. This means that it’s perfectly soft on the inside and it’s time to caramelize the outside for that subtle crispiness around the edges. This means it’s time to move your mallow next to the hotter base of the flame or nearer the hot coals where the caramelization process can occur at temperatures around 320 degrees. As sugar breaks down under heat and you see your treat begin to bubble and brown even more, new compounds will arise, resulting in an even darker exterior. 

When you release the warm white fluff, the milk chocolate will soften quickly. If you, like Gaine, prefer your chocolate to fight back when you bite into it, let your marshmallow cool for 20 seconds before transferring it from your roasting stick. You can also get this crunch more easly by opting for dark chocolate. This variety has a higher melting point (around 110 to 115 degrees) due to its lower fat and sugar content. This allows it to stay solid for longer.

Finally, after you’ve given the mallow a few seconds to cool to ensure you won’t burn your mouth, chow down and enjoy. And keep some napkins handy to clean up the sticky, chocolatey mess.

You can also add to the classic by swiping a spoonful of peanut butter, jam, or hazelnut spread onto your graham crackers before adding the marshmallow. Alternatively, swap the graham crackers for chocolate chip cookies, fudge-covered graham crackers that negate the need for extra chocolate (or add even more), or my favorite cookie swap: chocolate peanut-butter cookies like Girl Scout’s Tagalongs.

Needless to say, the possibilities are endless, especially given the abundance of vegan, gluten-free, and allergen-friendly s’mores ingredients. And as long as your marshmallow doesn’t turn into a bunch of burnt sugar, you can enjoy this delicious outdoorsy treat however you like.

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Knowing how to build a fire in the wilderness can save your life.

Bud Ahrens knows this first-hand. A few years ago, while leading a dog sledding trip in northern Minnesota with Outward Bound, an outdoor education and wilderness company, he watched as a coworker fell through ice into a lake. She spent several minutes in the freezing water before the team could pull her out.

Ahrens, the program director for Outward Bound’s winter courses, knew just what to do, so he and his team got to work. They had a fire burning in 20 minutes, likely saving his companion from frostbite, or worse.

As you can see, understanding how to build a fire in the wild, be it for warmth or cooking, can make a huge difference when you’re far from civilization.

Find your firestarter

A good fire begins with a quality firestarter. In some cases, that can mean something as simple as a store-bought starter or lighter fluid-doused twigs. But if you ever find yourself with no access to such tools, there are plenty of other options you can use to get some flames burning.

Aherns’ favorite is birch bark, and he often packs a bag or two of the stuff before heading into the wilderness. It contains a natural oil that’s water-resistant, so it will catch fire even if it’s wet. Native Americans often used the bark for baskets and canoes because of its moisture-shedding properties. If you’re harvesting bark in the backcountry, try to find some that has been blown off of trees. Each piece has many layers, so keep peeling until you find a dry one.

Spruce sap also makes a great natural firestarter. The flammable substance oozes out of injured trees and hardens into a resin, which can be snapped off and set ablaze. Still, Aherns warns that it may take several matches to get it going. Once lit, though, the sap will burn for several minutes, making it a great resource in wet conditions. While spruce is best, any hardened sap will do. Just find a blob that’s about the size of a wad of chewing gum, pull it off the tree, place it on the end of a stick, and light it up.

Other substances that make admirable stand-ins for natural firestarters include cotton balls coated in petroleum jelly, hand sanitizer sprinkled on small kindling, such as dry leaves and grass, or the fibrous inside of the bark of cedar trees. You can also make your own firestarters by melting candle wax, adding dryer lint, and coating a pine cone or two with the mixture. And for a fun way to start a fire and impress your friends, you can use Doritos, Cheetos, or any type of oily chip in a pinch. Simply light a corner of a few chips and place them beneath your kindling.

Give your fire room to breathe

“You need oxygen, fuel, and a sustained ignition source to have a fire,” Ahrens says. Those three factors form what he calls a “fire triangle”—neglect one side and the whole thing collapses.

Generally, fuel means wood, and an ignition source is a match or lighter. The level of oxygen will depend on how the wood is arranged—if you stack it well, it will facilitate air movement so the fire can breathe and grow.

Start with the kindling. Aherns suggests digging a trench a couple of inches deep as your fire pit, then laying three small pieces of wood over the trench in a triangle that’s just big enough to support your tinder. Pile your tinder, place your firestarter of choice in the middle of it, and build your structure around it all.

Ahrens prefers the teepee method—where vertical pieces of wood are tented over a central point above your kindling—but the log cabin method—when wood is stacked in a square in alternating directions, as if assembling a Jenga tower—works, too.

Start with smaller branches and sticks that will catch easily, then add larger pieces as the fire grows. Be careful not to overcrowd the wood, or oxygen won’t be able to flow freely and your fire will go out. Stick with branches or logs no bigger than your wrist. Ahrens says larger logs don’t mean more heat energy, just a longer burn. And don’t worry if you can’t build a massive blaze—small fires are just as effective for cooking and heating as larger ones.

Light it up

Ideally, when in the backcountry or at a campsite, you’ll have access to a lighter or matches. If you’re relying on the latter, make sure to keep them in a watertight container in case of inclement weather or unexpected submersion. Ahrens also always carries a lighter on a lanyard around his neck, just in case. But those aren’t the only ways to spark a flame.

A flint and steel fire striker is a handy tool for the job. If you’re in a pinch, a knife, or even a hard rock with a sharp edge can stand in for the steel. To create a spark, strike the flint and steel together in a fast, slicing motion. With dry kindling, a spark is often all you’ll need to light a fire.

Set a fire in the rain

Building a fire when everything’s perfectly dry is one thing, but in cold and wet conditions it becomes exponentially more difficult. It can, however, still be done.

“There’s dry stuff somewhere,” Aherns says. You just have to find it.

Start by looking for dry wood and kindling at the bases of trees where branches and foliage may have protected it from rain. In an emergency, you can harvest small branches from the lowest parts of nearby trees. It’s not good Leave No Trace ethics, but sometimes you have to do what’s necessary to survive. Look for dead trees or branches and wood that’s fallen to the ground that might be soggy on the outside, but dry on the inside. When you do, carve off the wet outer layers until you hit dry wood.

If it’s raining when you’re trying to start a fire, protect it from above by building a tripod-like structure or two and stretching or draping a tarp or tent fly over it. Make sure to mount it high enough that the fabric won’t catch fire or melt. To maintain a secure fuel supply, put damp logs nearby or over a fire grate to help them dry out.

Extra tips and tricks on how to build a fire

When getting a fire going, patience and preparation are key, Aherns says. To make it less of an ordeal, he suggests gathering all the materials you’ll need (matches, kindling, wood, etc.) before you begin so you don’t waste energy searching for more materials once you spark a flame. You can save time by gathering downed wood and starter materials on the way to the campsite if you know you’ll soon be calling it a day. Use your environment for ideas—Ahrens has used everything from pine needles to cattails as firestarter because that’s what was available nearby. Trial and error is a great way to discover what works and what doesn’t.

Don’t expect there to be an abundance of perfect materials where you camp, so the best trick is to always be prepared with fire-starting kits. Emergency provisions, such as food that doesn’t need to be cooked, are also a good idea in case you can’t find any wood or don’t have the energy to build a campfire. Waterproof and windproof matches are also quite useful in less-than-ideal conditions.

And if all else fails, Aherns says a gas stove you may have only intended to cook with will start a warming blaze. It’s somewhat difficult and not ideal (especially given the whole gas-canister-next-to-an-open-flame thing), but if you learn how to build a fire in the wilderness in any condition, it’s a last resort you’ll rarely have to rely on.

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The first time I held a gold pan in my hands, I knew what I would find. The employees at Gold Dredge 8 in Fairbanks, Alaska, had given me and all the other guests palm-sized bags of sandy dirt the moment we disembarked the train that had carried us from the parking lot to the historic site.

Where to look for gold

The key to successful gold panning, also known as placer mining, begins with location. After all, while precious minerals can be found just about anywhere, gold, especially in discoverable concentrations, is rare indeed. It exists naturally in three to four parts per billion within the earth’s crust, but you’ll need to find a spot where it’s at least 100 times more available (about three to four hundred parts per billion), explains Mickey Fulp, a field geologist and mining analyst who goes by the title “Mercenary Geologist.”

According to Fulp, those areas are mostly located on major tectonic and structural boundaries (like volcanoes and fault lines) where gold is transported and deposited, along with other minerals, by hydrothermal fluids through faults in the earth’s crust. When rocks that contain gold reach the surface, weathering starts to break them down. As they disintegrate, water transports loose materials, including gold, downhill, where everything ends up in the soil deposited by rivers and streams: alluvial deposits. These waterways are the perfect places to pan for gold.

To try your hand at panning in the wild, find a water source coming out of some mountains where gold is known to occur, like the Sierra Nevada range, says Holly Thane, an interpreter at Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park, where the California Gold Rush began in 1848. In fact, visitors can still pan in the park and participate in a demonstration to learn how to do it—a common feature of gold-related attractions.

Once you find a promising location, pick a spot that offers the best chance of discovery. Thane and Fulp both recommend panning behind rocks, natural dams, drop-offs, vegetation, and roots where water flows more slowly. Gold, which is 19 times heavier than water, will sink and accumulate in these places while less dense material, mostly sand and gravel, will continue downstream. Alternatively, set up in the bend of a river where erosion and weathering will create alluvial deposits along the banks.

For example, in California, there are still privately-owned claims that are off-limits to the public and frequently fiercely defended, often with guns, Thane says.

[Related: There’s a new gold rush in the American West. But is it safe?]

To avoid any problems, call the county or Bureau of Land Management in the region you’re headed to. Ask them where panning is permitted and what tools you’re allowed to use. Marshall Gold Park, for example, has a public beach where you can pan, but only allows visitors to do so using “pans and hands,” Thane says. No tools like shovels, sluice boxes, or metal detectors are allowed.

But not just any bowl will do: a specially-designed gold pan is the perfect tool for the job. These plastic or metal pans have two or three raised ridges on one side that are meant to trap heavier materials like gold while letting lighter ones like sand wash away. And don’t forget a vessel like a small plastic bottle to contain whatever gold you find.

Once you have the tools, it’s time to master the technique. There are nearly as many gold-panning methods as there are people who pan, but this is how Thane and the employees at Marshall Gold Park teach visitors in daily classes.

Take your pan and gently dig down into the sand. Fill the pan no more than halfway with sediment, then fill it to the 3/4 mark with water. Gently shake the pan and swirl the water—you don’t want to slosh all the solids out with the water yet. Since gold is so heavy, this action will give it a chance to sink to the bottom. 

Next, tilt the pan away from you at a 45-degree angle and dip it slowly into the waterway you’re prospecting until water reaches the ridge in the pan closest to the edge (the one closest to the top). Jiggle the pan while the edge is in the water or dip it repeatedly three or four times. This will allow the water to wash out the lightest sand and dirt. 

[Related: America thrived by choking its rivers with dams. Now it’s time to undo the damage.]

The goal of all this dipping and swirling is to get rid of all the lighter materials in the pan until you have only a thin layer of black sand, which is mostly iron. That’s where gold hides. Once you do, slowly swirl the pan in a circular motion. There should be just enough water in the pan to cover the sand. At this point, you’re no longer trying to get rid of excess material, you’re trying to separate the gold from whatever is still in the pan. 

As the water moves, it will carry the lighter material—the sand—with it and leave the gold where it sits. Once you’ve sufficiently separated the sand and gold flakes, you can pick them out with your fingertips and deposit them in your storage vessel.

Flakes are all you are likely to find in rivers, too, though small nuggets aren’t unheard of. “Gold is a soft metal, so as it is tumbled around the rocks in the river, it’ll get smoothed out,” Thane explains. Over time, this creates smooth yellow pieces of flat flake gold. Don’t expect what you find to be pure, either; gold is always mixed with varying amounts of silver in a metallic alloy called “electrum.” It might also contain minor amounts of other metals such as copper and mercury.

Patience is key

Your chances of striking it rich are slim—most valuable nuggets are discovered via mining, not panning—but the activity can nonetheless be fun and rewarding, especially if you happen to find a few flakes. “Don’t rush it. Have fun with it. Enjoy it,” Thane recommends. “And don’t expect to get rich.”

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For many, there’s a special joy in riding a bike that’s reminiscent of childhood: the freedom to go and do as you please, the feeling of flying down the road at speeds your legs are incapable of, and a sense of limitless exploration. And if there’s one way to amplify those experiences, bikepacking may be it.

But if you’ve never loaded up your camping gear onto a set of pedal-powered wheels and hit the road, you may have some questions. Fortunately, we have answers. 

“There’s no one way to do it,” explains Marley Blonsky, athlete, and co-founder of All Bodies on Bikes, a non-profit organization based in Bentonville, Arkansas, that aims to promote size inclusion in the cycling world. “People get caught up in doing it ‘the right way,’ but just go out and have fun,” she encourages. “There are no rules and no trophies—it’s whatever you want to make of it.”

That means bikepacking can be comprised of road or trail riding, camping at developed sites or off-grid in the backcountry; rides of two days or ten, distances of five miles or 500, or any combination of the above. You can do it solo or with friends and family, and anyone who has the desire can do it. Provided you have the necessary gear, of course.

It’s important to know that you don’t have to be an experienced bike mechanic to go off on your own bikepacking adventure. But you should at least know how to change a flat tire and fix a chain that has fallen off, two of the most common repairs you’ll address. Just don’t think that you can simply search YouTube for an instructional video when it’s time to fix things. You may find yourself with a broken bike part and no cell service when you’re off the beaten path, so make sure you learn before you leave. 

You may want to prioritize quicker meals for lunch and snacks. Make or grab a sandwich or spread hummus and veggies on a tortilla. For snacking, Blonsky recommends “whatever you can eat one-handed while you’re peddling,” like energy bars, fruit, and small bags of trail mix.

And if you like to have a treat at the end of the day, whether that’s a cupcake or a six-pack, bring it! Blonsky encourages new riders especially to pack whatever makes the trip more enjoyable for them.

Blonsky also recommends bringing a change of clothes just for camp, like a lightweight pair of shoes and a cozy outfit that isn’t sticky with sweat. Nothing feels as good after a long day of riding as stripping off your padded bike shorts and salt-crusted shirt to enjoy a meal around the campfire.

Avoid accidents by doing a safety check every day before you ride: Ensure your wheels are securely attached to your bike, your brakes are in good working order, and nothing needs attention or repair. Finally, always adhere to safe riding practices when sharing the road with motorists.

Or, if you’re already familiar with an area, make your own map by marking bike routes and trails, points of interest, campgrounds, and more on Google Maps. You can also use an app like Ride with GPS that’s specifically designed with bikepackers in mind. If you don’t know where to start, you can always ask around at your local bike shops and organizations—they can likely give you tips and suggestions.

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It’s not a matter of composition, but concentration. At high altitudes, there’s less atmospheric pressure, which reduces the number of oxygen molecules in a given volume of air compared to the same volume at a lower elevation. For example, at 10,000 feet, you only get 69 percent of the oxygen you’d get at sea level. 

Essentially, the higher you go, the less efficient your breathing becomes, resulting in less and less oxygen every time you inhale. In response, your body tries to get the oxygen it needs, so you start breathing more rapidly. But despite this effort, there’s still less oxygen making it into your blood and muscles, which is why physical activities feel so much harder at higher elevations. This condition is called hypoxia, and it’s what causes altitude sickness symptoms to set in.

“It felt like a really bad hangover,” says Prather about the first time he experienced altitude sickness.

It’s a feeling that usually hits within a day or two of arriving at a high-altitude destination, but you may still feel mild symptoms like lightheadedness before that, especially when bending over and standing up quickly, or walking up stairs.

Most of the time, these symptoms are not life-threatening and only require acclimatization to abate. But especially at elevations over 10,000 feet, symptoms can worsen and lead to more severe health conditions: High altitude cerebral edema (HACE) or high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE).

HACE typically comes with a loss of balance, episodes of confusion, and possibly a severe headache. On the other hand, HAPE presents itself with decreased stamina, breathlessness (even at rest), and a persistent cough that starts out sounding dry and transitions to wet, signaling the presence of fluid in the lungs. HAPE is more common than HACE, but both can be deadly, which is why it’s important to head down in elevation as soon as you start experiencing symptoms.

Not even athletes or people in excellent shape are immune. In fact, Prather says those tend to be who he’s most worried about when leading trips, as non-athletes tend to listen to their bodies and pay attention to symptoms, whereas athletes may try to push through the pain or discomfort.

Start by planning ahead and allowing enough time for acclimatization. Don’t expect to land in Quito, Ecuador (9,350 feet above sea level), the Himalayas (29,032 feet), or even Denver (5,279 feet) and immediately set out to summit even a moderate peak. Your body needs between 24 and 48 hours to adjust to new altitudes, but the time it takes you to fully acclimatize may vary. The National Outdoor Leadership School’s curriculum specifies that “if you travel to 10,000 feet or above quickly, take two to three rest days with light exercise.” If you take time to get acclimated, symptoms won’t likely hit as hard.

Once you’ve given your body time to get used to the new conditions, don’t rush into summiting anything—the faster you climb, the more likely you are to suffer symptoms. If you have a multi-day hike to higher elevations ahead of you, Prather recommends spreading the trip across several more days, so that once you’re above 10,000 feet, you and your team can ascend in stages where each night you sleep at altitudes no more than 1,500 feet higher than the night before. Throw in frequent rest days, too.

If you can, consider spending the night at lower elevations, as sleeping at high altitudes is even harder on your body. To do this, you can go on climbing trips during the day, and then go down to your base camp at night.

Over-the-counter pain meds like ibuprofen and acetaminophen can help lessen the severity of headaches, but avoid anything stronger, like opiates, which have a similar effect to alcohol and sedatives, Prather says. 

[Related: Does training at high altitudes help Olympians win?]

If you are expecting to experience altitude sickness, ask your doctor about acetazolamide. This drug can alleviate symptoms of altitude sickness by speeding up your respiratory drive. It works by changing your blood’s Ph to be more acidic, which makes your body believe there’s too much carbon dioxide. As a result, your system makes your breathing faster and deeper in an attempt to eliminate carbon dioxide, resulting in a higher concentration of oxygen.

Finally, if altitude sickness persists or worsens despite your best prevention and treatment efforts, take Prather’s words as your new motto: “Don’t go up until your symptoms go down”. If there’s no improvement, it may be time to head to a lower elevation. Don’t worry—you can always try again next time.

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There’s something inherently pleasing about dining al fresco around a campfire—a tumbler of your favorite beverage in hand, the smell of grilled burgers in the air, s’mores ingredients standing by. 

But cooking outdoors fills plenty of folks with anxiety. After all, it’s quite different from cooking in a fully-stocked and well-equipped kitchen. Fortunately, there are plenty of ways to make your next meal at the campground less stressful and more satisfying. It just requires more preparation, organization, and the right ingredients.

The classically-trained chef also recommends limiting recipes to those requiring 10 ingredients or less, and cooking times shorter than 30 minutes. After all, when dinnertime rolls around in the outdoors, you’ll probably want to kick back and relax—not slave over the camp stove.

[Related: Survival cooking: how to cook with sticks]

Make a list of recipes you’ll make while camping. Make sure there are a lot of overlapping elements so you don’t have to pack your whole fridge. Continue by listing the ingredients to prepare your meals. Writing a packing list will ensure you don’t forget anything important. Then, check the directions and jot down a list of the tools you’ll need. Make sure to include often-forgotten utensils, like can and bottle openers.

Once you’ve gathered everything you need, keep it organized, either by meal or by type. For example, you could keep breakfast essentials in one storage tub or tote, and dinner ingredients in another. Alternatively, if overlapping ingredients make it hard to categorize your food, keep spices, oils, and sauces in one box, dry ingredients in another, and snacks in another. This will help you prepare a meal with ease as it’ll prevent you from having to dig through bags trying to find the garlic powder or pasta.

Finally, if you have a reliable way to keep perishable ingredients chilled, like a cooler filled with ice or a portable electric fridge, prep as much as you can before you leave home. This will help cut down cooking time while also streamlining the entire process. Chop vegetables, pre-cook ingredients that take a long time to simmer, like rice (it will also save you stove fuel), and pre-mix ingredient-heavy dressings, marinades, or spice mixes.

As for items that you’ll need to keep cold, like meat, dairy, or pre-cooked ingredients, keep your cooler well-stocked with ice. Consider an electric cooler that acts like a fridge for longer trips, or swap those ingredients out for shelf-stable alternatives, like foil pack chicken or packaged or freeze-dried beans and chickpeas.

Corso also recommends bringing spice mixes instead of individual spices. In addition to being easy to pack and use, he explains that “they provide a lot of flavor for not a lot of space or waste.” 

And whatever you do, don’t forget the acid. Vinegar, lemon, and lime, even powdered sumac, can really bring a dish together. According to Corso, it introduces a top note of freshness that counteracts rich and fatty flavors to create balance.

Bring the right equipment

Unless you’re planning to cook over your campfire, you’ll need to keep a few things in mind when picking the right stove.

There are plenty of varieties available: from compact backpacking stoves that take up almost no room in your trunk to full-size grills with gas burners. But the most popular option for camping is a two-burner, propane-powered camp stove, which is easy to use and transport, and provides even, consistent heat for everything from boiling to sauteing.

When it’s time to purchase one, Corso recommends looking for a sturdy model, possibly one that folds up like a suitcase for easy transport. If you’re camping with one or two people, you may be tempted to get a smaller stove, but you should take into account that size matters for more than just the dinner headcount. Some camp stoves are so compact you may not be able to fit two large pans or pots next to each other at the same time, making the cooking process a whole lot slower, so make sure to test the fit before you get yours.

[Related: Make dinner anywhere with these propane cookers]

Stove in hand, it’s time to select your cookware. Corso’s tools of choice include a cast-iron skillet (in the 19-inch to 12-inch range) and 4-quart pot for car camping. Choose lighter, more compact cookware if you’re backpacking. That will be good for two to four people, but the size will vary depending on the number of campers in your group.

Once you have the basics, you can equip your cooking arsenal with more specialty items, like a griddle if you plan to make pancakes or even a portable pizza oven.

And when dinnertime rolls around at the campground, have fun with it. After all, eating doesn’t have to be just a necessity—it should be a flavorful and enjoyable compliment to every excursion outdoors.

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Turkish coffee is unlike any other in the world, and it’s a favorite among caffeine lovers. But this dark drink’s thick texture and robust flavor make it an acquired taste, and its preparation is vastly different from most other coffee-making methods. 

Making Turkish coffee can be tricky, as this centuries-old tradition requires specialized tools and specific know-how. Fortunately, understanding the science behind the making of this beverage will help you enjoy it at home—no trip to Istanbul required. 

• Pro tip: If you can’t find specialized coffee, you can use an espresso roast that boasts “body.” Higher-grade coffee beans will produce a finer foam, a trademark of Turkish coffee. Just make sure that the grind is as fine as possible. 
• Note: If you don’t have a cezve, you can use a small saucepan with a spout. Just keep in mind that the shape of the pot is important for retaining heat and producing foam (more on that later) so it won’t result in quite the same experience.

2. Stir with a spoon. Keep going until the coffee is fully combined.

3. (Optional) Add sugar or sweetener and stir. Usually, a teaspoon or two, depending on your taste. Adding it at this stage instead of at the end of the process will ensure the sugar dissolves properly.

4. Place the pot over medium heat until dark foam starts forming. This will happen right before the water starts to boil—around the 4 to 5-minute mark if you’re making one cup. When it does, remove the pot from the stove.

The foam in Turkish coffee is similar to crema on a well-pulled shot of espresso, and it’s not only a signal of a quality cup, but it also adds to the coffee-drinking experience. Those tiny bubbles have insulation properties that help your drink stay warm for longer, and trap volatile aroma molecules, which results in enhanced flavor. 

Foam forms with the release of carbon dioxide and other gasses that were introduced to the ground coffee during the roasting process. Researchers don’t fully understand how foam formation works yet, but one theory points to the tension change on the surface of the coffee due to the high temperature, which would allow the foam to form and gather. 

8. Let your coffee settle for a minute before you drink. This will give the grounds time to sink to the bottom of your cup. Resist the urge to stir your coffee, add milk or more sugar as you’ll mix all the grounds into the beverage, making for a less pleasing texture.

Some tradition and science

Turkish coffee, and its particular preparation, is one of the oldest coffee traditions in the world, dating back to the Ottoman empire (specifically to the Yemeni region, in the south) at the beginning of the 16th century. People in the Middle East and southern Mediterranean regions were drinking it long before Americans were chugging copious amounts of brewed beans.

But this ancient coffee is more than a beverage rooted in history—it’s also a modern institution and a symbol of hospitality and celebration in Turkey. For example, would-be brides serve coffee laced with salt to their future spouse and in-laws during engagement ceremonies, which they drink to imply the extent of their love. And it’s still common, if only for fun, to peer into the bottom of your empty cup and attempt to divine your fortune from the remaining grounds.

The brewing method that results in Turkish coffee differs greatly from other techniques Americans are more acquainted with. American coffee is a percolation, explains Giuliano, which involves hot water passing through coffee grounds. This is how drip coffee makers, pour-overs, and espresso machines work. 

On the other hand, Turkish coffee is a result of a process called decoction, a more powerful and effective way of extracting flavor that involves boiling the coffee grounds along with the water. By applying direct heat, you extract more flavor from the beans, resulting in the strong and characteristic flavor of Turkish coffee. It also dissolves more superfine coffee bean particles than other methods, which imparts more intense flavor.

But it’s not just the heating and the soaking—the fine grind of the beans plays a big role as well. Turkish coffee requires a grind about as fine as flour, which exponentially increases the surface area of the coffee, allowing hot water to pull even more flavor from every tiny granule. 

Additionally, this method leaves tiny bits of non-soluble grounds suspended in the beverage, giving Turkish coffee its unique texture and mouthfeel. Those suspended particles are also linked to the aftertaste. They literally cling to your mouth and tongue after you swallow, Giuliano explains, leading to the continued stimulation of taste and odor receptors in the mouth and nasal cavity: “The amount of time spent drinking is almost trivial compared to the amount of time you can enjoy [Turkish coffee] afterward.” 

So when you think about it, the extra minutes you’ll spend making your Turkish coffee are absolutely worth the extra minutes you’ll get to enjoy your morning cup.

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The couple, who have gone overlanding on multiple continents, explains that this kind of trip is more of a mindset than a specific activity. In practice, it’s a deliberate and un-rushed amble from place to place, where you learn as much as you can about new places and their customs. 

The term “overlanding” may conjure visions of technical gear and over-built vehicles, but it certainly doesn’t have to. In fact, all you need to get started is a mode of transportation.

“Overlanding gets a bad rap because people think you need a whole bunch of specialized gear,” Sonya says. But in reality, other than the basics, the focus should be on what makes you comfortable, she explains. 

If you already own camping gear, then you likely have all you need to start overlanding. The basics, according to Necota and Sonya, include a shelter, a sleep system, a kitchen setup, and a bathroom kit. But what each of those entails, is up to you.

A shelter could be a traditional tent, rooftop tent, or hammock. It could even be a platform in the back of your van with a mattress thrown on top. Meanwhile, your sleep system should include a sleeping pad or mattress, a sleeping bag, and a pillow. But if you have a mattress, you might opt for sheets instead.

A kitchen should consist of basic necessities like a compact camp stove, a pot, a pan or two, durable dinnerware, and a bucket for washing up. If you want to go big, some vehicle build-outs may even have a kitchen block that pulls out of the hatchback like a drawer.

As for a bathroom, you can DIY a toilet out of a bucket, toilet seat, and trash bag, get an expensive composting toilet, or even use a sealable plastic jug for, ahem, liquid waste. Wag bags designed for camping are another low-cost option. There are also heated portable showers available for staying clean on the road, or you can just use wet wipes. Whatever you do, just make sure to follow Leave No Trace principles.

Don’t forget refillable jugs for those days you won’t have access to running water, and a cooler to keep perishables cold. Plenty of food to sustain you as you camp far from civilization for days on end is also a must. 

If you have laptops, cell phones, cameras, or GPS devices, you’ll need to keep them charged along the way or at camp. A power station and portable solar panels can come in handy, so as not to accidentally drain your vehicle’s battery.

As for route-finding, you can use apps like Google Maps (for iOS and Android) and Gaia (for iOS and Android) to plot your trip, find backroads, and get directions. Both offer the option to download maps for offline use, which comes in handy when you’re headed off-grid. But these are no replacement for a good ol’ paper map, which you should always bring with you in case technology fails you. 

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Paddling down a quiet, sprawling lake or river, the wind at your back, a sunny, welcoming sandbar just up ahead. Complete with a few nights in a remote campsite under the stars, these are all the makings of a perfect kayak or canoe camping trip, where you carry everything you need to survive on your vessel.

Canoe or kayak camping is a lot different than car camping or even backpacking, so many outdoor enthusiasts are reluctant to try it. Fortunately, this kind of adventure is not as daunting as it may seem at first glance, and a little know-how will help you keep things safe, fun, and dry.

When planning your first trip, it’s a good idea to do some online research or stop by your local outdoor store or outfitter and ask questions. They’ll be able to guide you to the best places to start or finish, and inform you regarding local laws such as where you can or can’t camp. They’ll also let you know about potential obstacles like rough water or portages, where you’ll have to carry your boat to get through stretches of river with shallow beds or dams.

If you’re new to the activity, say so, and ask about routes where there will likely be many paddlers present. To get around, make sure to bring a compass (and know how to use it), and a waterproof map. If you can find it, get a canoe-specific one, as their layout is different from topographic maps and simpler to read when you’re in the water. 

It’s also a good idea to pack a satellite communicator. You can purchase these online or from an outdoor retailer, but they’re expensive, so you may want to rent one. They offer peace of mind, plus a practically guaranteed way to call for help in the case of an emergency.

You’ll need a tent or hammock, a sleeping pad, sleeping bag, pillow, cooking implements like utensils, a pot, a pan, and a stove or a grill grate if you plan to cook over fire. If you’re a seasoned camper, you probably already have most of it, says Mikaela Ferguson, ardent canoe-camper and co-founder of outdoor blog VoyageurTripper.com. And don’t forget trash bags. Whatever you bring with you, you have to pack back out again, including trash and food waste like peels and cores. 

A water filter and a purification system are essential, as well as a life jacket, which you’ll be wearing whenever you hit the water. In fact, Ferguson recommends packing an extra life jacket and paddle for your group. It’s easier than you think to lose either one in the drink, she explains, and if it floats away before you can get to it, you’ll be out of luck. Fortunately, most outfitters that offer rental packages will supply you with a spare. If they don’t, ask for one.

As for what to wear, avoid cotton, as it takes too long to dry. And you will get wet. “As much as we believe we’re not going to tip over in a canoe, these things happen,” Ferguson says. But synthetic clothing doesn’t have to be special or overly technical. She recommends a decent rain jacket and pants because, unlike car camping, if it starts raining you can’t just run under a gazebo or cozy up in the backseat. 

To keep your feet comfy, bring a pair of boat shoes and a pair of camp shoes. Boat shoes will get wet and stay wet for most of the trip while camp shoes should be kept dry at all costs. Ferguson wears quick-dry running shoes while paddling and comfy sandals in camp.

If you opt for a canoe, you’ll find you’re not nearly as confined by space or weight, but if you’re kayak camping, you’ll have less room to pack bulky items, so you’ll need smaller, lighter gear, like compact backpacking tents and smaller cook sets. Just make sure to leave room for a few comfort items. Ferguson recommends bringing your favorite snacks, games for the campground, even her new favorite piece of gear—a camp chair. That way you can relax and enjoy yourself once you arrive at camp.

Dry sacks are perfect for kayaks and for quick-grab items like sunscreen, cameras, rain jackets, or snacks. You will need several per person: a large sack for gear like clothing, sleeping bags, and tents, plus smaller ones for accessories and food. But they only work if you know how to use them, so ask for tips or read your dry sack’s instructions to ensure user error won’t result in all your stuff getting soaked.

And as with backpacking, always keep one pair of socks and a full set of clothing dry at all times to prevent hypothermia and keep you comfy at camp.

“The first trip is always the hardest to start,” Ferguson says. “But once you’ve done it once, it becomes so much easier.” Build confidence by renting a boat for a day, camping for just a night, or taking a guided trip. You’ll be cruising waterways and pitching your tent on picture-perfect waterfront sites in no time.

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Dirt, grime, and sweat are some of the reasons why many people don’t care for spending time far from flush toilets, running water, and hot showers. After all, folks don’t usually enjoy having three layers of dry sweat on their skin or dirt crusted in every crevice of their body—all things that are often unavoidable when you’re camping far from civilization or spending any time outdoors.

But just because you can’t avoid mud droplets drying on your shins, or sweating in humid, 90-degree temperatures, doesn’t mean you can’t still stay clean and—relatively—stink-free while enjoying time in nature. 

Hand sanitizer with at least 60 percent alcohol is effective at killing germs that can live on your paws and make you sick when you touch your food, nose, mouth, or eyes. Use it often, especially after going to the bathroom and before eating.

Pro tip: if you’re camping in a group, make sure everyone has their own bottle so you’re not constantly asking where the hand sanitizer is.

Remember that you’ll want to leave the outdoors exactly as you found it, so unless there are trash cans along your trail, you’ll also have to bring a zip-top bag to pack out any used wipes.

With these more compact models, you’ll have water come out of a nozzle that’s attached to a bag that generally holds between two and 24 liters of water. But even the smaller portable showers are bulky, so they’re better for excursions where size or weight aren’t an issue, like car camping.

Mandagie prefers something more immersive: a quick plunge in a cool lake. “It’s such a refreshing way to feel clean after a long, sweaty hike.” If you opt for a dip in nature’s bathtub you’ll need to make sure you’re wearing reef-safe sunscreen, and leave any soap out of the equation. This includes the biodegradable type, as it breaks down in soil, not water, so it will pollute natural waterways.

Taking an actual shower is what Mandagie calls a “hygienic reset” and involves scoping out local gyms or YMCAs that may offer inexpensive day-use or shower passes for weary travelers. Pay at the front desk and you’ll be squeaky clean in no time.

If they have them, campgrounds often allow folks to use their shower facilities for a fee. Check with locally owned operations to see if they’ll let visitors come in and clean up before heading on their way. 

Before your trip, check with the local park office to make sure you are allowed to also bury waste like used toilet paper. If they don’t, you’ll have to pack it out instead, so make sure you have opaque zip-top bags or dog waste bags ready. If you want to skip the toilet paper, consider biodegradable wet wipes. Just remember that most don’t biodegrade quickly in soil, so you’ll still need to pack them out. 

Alternatively, whether you’re doing your business outdoors, in portable toilets, or campground bathrooms, you can snag a portable bidet. There are several brands that make purpose-built devices, but your typical sports water bottle with a squeeze lid will do the job just as well. Just make sure you label it so you don’t accidentally drink out of it after it’s been dangerously close to your caboose.

Bring along a spray bottle with one part rubbing alcohol and one part water. You can also add a few drops of your favorite essential oil, if you like. Spray the mix liberally on stinky clothes to get rid of the stench for a day or so—or until you get them sweaty again. Keep in mind that it won’t do anything about stains or mud, but it might make you less likely to reel at your own bodily musk if the laundromat is still a few days away.

[Related: How to do laundry the green way]

If you need a deeper clean, grab yourself a portable wash bag. These devices are water tight, ultra-compact, and textured on the inside to provide agitation. Simply add dirty clothes, water, and biodegradable soap, and shake until your clothes are clean. Rinse, wring, and hang to dry. Dump used water in a nearby sink if available, but if you’re using just a squeeze or two of biodegradable soap and no harsh chemicals, distributing dirty water over a wide area on the ground is typically acceptable, too.

Unless you’re planning on staying put to wait for clothes to dry, we recommend using this method only on sunny or windy days, and with quick-drying fabrics, like polyester.

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For many, traveling is about new experiences, including plenty of new foods. From baklava in Greece to hot pot in China, hand pies in Australia to beignets in New Orleans, food defines a destination as much as a city’s museums, local markets, or historic buildings.

But when you have dietary restrictions—whether that’s allergies, celiac disease, or you’re vegan or vegetarian by choice—indulging in local delicacies far from home can feel stressful and sometimes downright frightening. After all, if one meal has the potential to derail your entire trip, you’re much less likely to indulge with abandon.

Fortunately, technology can make travel easier and more comfortable for those with just about any dietary restriction. 

“It’s not an exaggeration to say that it has completely changed the way we travel,” says Matt Hansen, founder of the travel blog Wheatless Wanderlust, and an adventurer with celiac disease that loves to eat. “The combination of social media, blogs, and new apps has transformed travel from ‘book a place with a kitchen and eat simple meals,’ to being able to take part in the food culture of places we visit.”

Hansen recommends Find Me Gluten Free (free for iOS and Android), an app that points him toward restaurants with gluten-free options. Travelers can search by type of cuisine and location, see menus, and even find out if the location has dedicated gluten-free operations for those with celiac. 

For other allergies, AllergyEats (free for iOS and Android) and iEatOut Gluten Free & Allergy Free (available only for iOS) can help you find restaurants that can accommodate your needs.

Ask for recommendations, tips and tricks, if there are any events happening soon, or even if anyone wants to meet up for lunch. Most locals with dietary restrictions are more than happy to offer mini dining guides to the city they live in and point you in the direction of gastronomic nirvana. 

This can be especially helpful in regions where you’re entirely unfamiliar with the local food scene and culture. Vegetarians who live in Brussels, for example, may be able to point out which frite stands don’t fry their potatoes in lard. Those with celiac disease in Japan can tell you who makes sushi with imitation crab and who uses the gluten-free real thing. And Turkish hummus lovers with dairy allergies can inform you which restaurants add butter to their chickpeas and which don’t.

While searching, you may also find a number of travel blogs, which Hansen likes to consult for ideas and tips for dining at your destination. Articles and blog posts written by food lovers who either live or have recently visited where you’re going will likely be in abundance.

On Twitter, you can also type in simpler search words like #vegan or #dairyfree and hit Search. On the next page you can scroll through the results or filter them—on the web, use the tools you’ll find to your right; but if you’re on the Twitter app, tap the toggle switches right next to the search bar. There, tap the bubble next to Near you to only see tweets that have been posted from your location. If you’re on the web, you can also click on the three-dot menu to the right of the search bar, and do an Advanced Search.

On the Google Maps app, use the search bar to locate a destination. On the emerging card, scroll to the left under the listing details and tap Save. You can then add it to a list, tag it, and even make a note like “good brunch spot” or “famous for gnocchi.” That icon will then appear on your map.

On Apple Maps, search for a restaurant and simply select Add to Favorites at the bottom of the listing page. Its icon will then appear in the Favorites portion of the app’s main menu—drag up from the bottom to see it. When you need directions, tap the icon and Apple Maps will immediately plot a route.

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Anyone who’s spent the night outdoors knows that fresh air and fireside chats have the mystical power to make everything taste better. And that goes double for cocktails: libations sipped by a bubbling brook, passed around a campsite surrounded by trees, or poured with mountains in the background just seem to be more delicious.

Putting together tasty cocktails in the great outdoors takes a bit more prep and planning than slinging martinis at your backyard wet bar. So here are some tips and tricks on how to do it right, and two mouth-watering recipes that will surely impress your camp companions.

The same goes for drinking glasses. There is an abundance of specialty cocktail vessels made of steel or aluminum that are designed for the outdoors, but any metal or plastic cup will do. Alternatively, you can mix up cocktails in advance and keep them in a flask or a water bottle until it’s time to chill and pour. As you might imagine if you’ve ever had a pre-mixed cocktail, it’ll never be quite as good as freshly mixed one. But it’s incredibly practical, especially when you need to carry all your tools and ingredients on your back. Add ice and garnishes in individual serving cups once you’ve set up camp.

Speaking of ice, keep it frozen by placing some in a vacuum-insulated bottle or a portable insulated ice bucket. If you need it to last more than a few hours, fill a cooler with dry ice to keep regular cubes frozen for longer. If you prefer a more natural, less bulky method, Ludlow Dawes, senior brand manager of Stillhouse, a distillery that packages its spirits in steel cans designed for outdoor adventure, suggests keeping beverages chilled by sealing them properly and then placing them in a cold river or stream.

Next, streamline your cocktail menu, tools, and ingredients. Start by choosing one or two simple cocktails that only require a handful of components and let the alcohol shine. If you plan on making several different drinks, select recipes that have similar elements so you can optimize the process. When it comes to your gear, Dawes recommends picking a single beloved mixer to bring along for ultimate simplicity. Finally, if your cocktails feature fresh fruit juices, stick with something simple and easily portable like lemon and lime. You can even squeeze the juice out in advance and pack it in a reusable plastic bottle.

And don’t forget to leave no trace, meaning dispose of everything correctly when you head home. That includes peels, rinds, and empty cans and bottles. If you brought it into the outdoors, take it with you when you leave.

Fir needles paired with lemon juice, gin, and tonic water can add a refreshing mountain twist to a gin and tonic. Wild mint, sugar, and bourbon make an easy mint julep and foraged lavender, and blueberries make for excellent additions to your outdoorsy cocktails. To add a sweet and smokey touch to your libations, use your campfire to grill pineapple and citrus. 

You can also turn a campsite classic into a boozy variation by putting together a s’more martini—just use chocolate liquor, cream, and vanilla-flavored vodka, and garnish it with chocolate syrup, graham crackers, and a golden-brown roasted marshmallow.

Strain the mixture into a cup with ice. To garnish, top with a pinch of freshly grated nutmeg and cinnamon. If you like, add a slice of grilled apple, and a cinnamon stick. Enjoy cold.

Alternatively, serve this cocktail as a hot apple toddy by warming the apple cider, ginger syrup, lemon juice, and cinnamon stick over the campfire. Stir to combine. Strain and transfer the ingredients to an insulated mug. To finish, add the whiskey and garnishes.

[Related: Craft herbaceous homemade drinks with simple syrup infusions]

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Shrouded in darkness on a south Florida beach, I crouched about 20 feet behind a loggerhead sea turtle, waiting. I watched in silence, eyes straining in the weak red light of my headlamp, as she deposited one soft, ping-pong-ball-sized egg after another onto a quickly growing pile. I was witnessing the perilous propagation of an endangered species—a rare and spectacular sight.

And perilous might be an understatement: once hatchlings emerge from the sand, only 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 10,000 will actually make it to the Gulf Stream where they feast on algae, seaweed, and jellyfish as they grow into adults. Of the millions of eggs laid each year along Florida coasts, only several hundred turtles are likely to make it to sexual maturity.

That’s because the hatchlings that make it to the water without getting picked off by sea birds or led astray by distracting lights on the beach may succumb to boating or fishing accidents or trash and pollution in waterways. Given all those risks, it’s important to offer sea turtles the best chance of survival from the get-go, and you can start by protecting nests and hatchlings on North America’s beaches this summer.

When is sea turtle nesting season?

The time of year that sea turtles nest, lay eggs, and hatch depends on the species and where in North America you are. Loggerheads and green sea turtle nests are abundant in Florida, but loggerheads also crawl ashore from Alabama to North Carolina. Similarly, green turtles will lay eggs in Hawaii, Texas, Georgia, and the Carolinas. Kemp’s ridley sea turtle—a critically endangered species—is more likely to be found in Texas and Mexico. Leatherbacks primarily nest in Mexico, Florida, and the Caribbean, while hawksbill sea turtles mainly reproduce in Hawaii and the Caribbean.

For most species, April to October are active times for nesting and hatching—almost perfectly coinciding with prime beach-going season. Take the loggerhead, for example: When a female is ready to nest, she slowly heaves her 300-pound body up the beach until she feels dry sand under her chin, sometimes going far beyond the high tide line. She then digs a 2-foot deep hole with her back flippers, lays an average of 120 eggs, refills the hole with sand, and heads back to the water. The whole process might take anywhere from 30 minutes to three hours, depending on the species, and female turtles will do it every two weeks, for an average total of four to six nests.

But if a turtle spots you on her way up the beach or while digging, she may stop and retreat to the ocean. That’s a problem, because if she tries and fails more than a couple of times to build a nest, she’ll give up and deposit her clutch of eggs in the ocean where they won’t hatch. And because sea turtle species are endangered, some critically, every nest is crucial for their recovery, says Mary Kay Skoruppa, US Fish and Wildlife Service sea turtle coordinator for the Texas coast, speaking specifically of the Kemp’s ridley.

Turn your lights off

While most adult sea turtles avoid bright light instinctually, hatchlings are attracted to artificial light, explains Amber Kuehn, a marine biologist in charge of South Carolina’s Hilton Head Island Sea Turtle Patrol. When baby turtles emerge, they know to look for the moon reflecting off the ocean, lighting their way to the water. But if there’s a bright porch light or lantern nearby, they’ll scurry toward it instead, resulting in almost certain death.

At a beachfront property, turn the outside lights off at night and use dark-sky-approved fixtures that are downward-facing and shielded on the beach side of the house, fitted with warm-colored bulbs. Interior light shouldn’t be pouring onto the beach, either, explains Kuehn, so consider tinting your windows or using light-blocking curtains or blinds. In many places, including Hilton Head, there are even municipal codes detailing turtle-protection directives.

Sandcastles and holes, for example, can trap turtles or block their paths to and from the water. It only takes a hole a few inches deep to ensnare a hatchling, likely killing it. So whether you’re building or digging, make sure to level the sand before you leave.

It should go without saying, but don’t leave any trash on the beach, either, no matter how small. Plastic straws are notorious for the risks they pose to sea turtles, but plastic bags, fishing line, candy wrappers, and really any type of garbage can endanger them as a tangling or choking hazard.

If your pup is accompanying you to the beach, keep it on a leash, especially at night. Dogs can easily injure sea turtles or scare them away from a nesting area.

In Texas, the Kemp’s ridley nests during the day, but that doesn’t mean they’re easier to see: after a female fills in her nest, her back will be covered with camouflaging sand.

What to do if you spot a turtle nesting

If you happen to be nearby when a sea turtle is making her way up the beach, it’s important not to give her a reason to abandon her mission. So keep your distance—50 feet is a good rule of thumb for pedestrians; 100 feet for motorized vehicles, according to Skoruppa. You should also lower your voice, and absolutely do not block her path whether she’s headed out of or into the water.

“Enjoy the moment and consider yourself blessed,” Skoruppa says. “It’s a magnificent thing to witness.”

Once the turtle is gone, mark the nest site by laying pieces of driftwood or other beach debris in a large circle around the area so biologists can find the nest during patrol. Just don’t disturb the nest itself once the animal has departed. Not only could you hurt the eggs inside, but it’s a federal offense.

Finally, call a local agency to alert them to the nest’s location. Most beaches will have signs with contact information, but if not, a good bet is to ring your state’s wildlife agency or the federal Fish and Wildlife Service.

We hope you have a safe, enjoyable visit to the beach this season, but make sure the species who rely on it do, too.

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For most people, summer means vacation and traveling. As temperatures rise, 80 percent of Americans plan on changing their everyday scenery, and most of them will do so by taking a road trip. And it makes sense since driving is more flexible and cheaper than flying.

The trunk of your car has a lot more room than a single carry-on, but it’s definitely limited and you’ll need to make the most of it. Packing for the road isn’t just about the satisfaction of winning a complicated game of luggage Tetris—safety is important, too. 

“Properly packing cars mitigates these dangers and also helps keep all passengers safe and organized,” says Thomas McIntyre Schultz, who’s in charge of technology and product communications at Volvo Car USA.

But at worst, loose items can be deadly. According to Volvo’s loading recommendations, an object weighing 44 pounds can reach an equivalent projectile weight of over 2,200 pounds in a head-on collision at just 30 miles per hour. At that speed, if the item hits the driver or one of the passengers, it may cause serious injuries or even death. So packing is about more than comfort and convenience—it could literally save your life.

First, disassemble or collapse large items like strollers, for example, so they pack down as small as possible. Then, to make sure you’re making the most of the space in your car, pack anything especially bulky or with sharp edges in its own box. Fill in any nooks and crannies with soft, pliable goods like blankets, pillows or jackets. This will make packing easier and protect your luggage from getting scratched or dented.

Once everything in the driveway or garage is ready, visualize how it might all fit together before you start loading. Place heavy bags at the bottom of the stack to prevent them from sliding around or crushing more delicate items. For especially large or awkwardly shaped things like bikes, scooters, or sports equipment, consider installing a bike rack or roof rack outside your vehicle. Make sure to follow the manufacturers’ installation instructions carefully to ensure the racks are secure.

Once everything is in place, take a photo so you can reference it and replicate the results when you head home.

For convenience’s sake, keep handy items like first aid kits, snacks, and entertainment devices in the passenger area. Keep them in baskets or boxes and try to secure them to seats, or wedge them tightly on the floor between rows to keep them from sliding or spilling.

Be mindful of your car

What you’ll need to make your ride safe before hitting the road will depend on what you drive. McIntyre Schultz explains sedans—cars with separate enclosed trunks—don’t require as many safety measures as other vehicles.

 “A trunk provides a natural separation for passengers from luggage, heavy, or loose gear and can minimize distractions caused by items shifting mid-drive,” he says.

If you’re driving an SUV or hatchback, things are different. To avoid a flying suitcase ruining your trip, stow heavy items at the bottom of the trunk and away from people. This will make them easier to pack while preventing them from falling on passengers, crushing other items or, in case of an accident, turning into deadly projectiles. For added safety, use rope or bungee cords to strap down heavy objects to your vehicle’s built-in tie-down anchors. If you have luggage piled in the backseat, secure it with a safety net. This simple barrier can will also prevent cargo from flying forward into the front seats.

[Related: How airbags work, and how they can fail]

If you’re piling high, don’t let luggage bang against the windows—avoid any breakage or damage to the glass by leaving a 4-inch space between it and your gear. Also, don’t forget to leave enough space so you can see out your windows and through your rearview mirror. 

Finally, make any changes your car needs to handle the heavy load, especially if you’ve attached a hitch-mounted rack or trailer. Check your car’s specs carefully and look into whether you’ll need to adjust your tire pressure to accommodate the extra weight. You’ll find all that information in your car’s manual.

Strapping in all your goods and gear in place (and yourself, too) will make your road trip a safe one, so you’re more likely to arrive at your destination healthy, happy, and ready to enjoy a well deserved summer vacation. 

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The average US household wastes 32 percent of its food, costing each family about $1,600 a year. While everyone can practice more responsible shopping and be better about eating ingredients or leftovers before they go bad, some of that waste, like fruit peels, can’t be avoided. Or so you may think.

Annually, the average American eats 13.4 pounds of bananas—our favorite fresh fruit. But since peels can comprise 35 percent of the fruit, a large portion of what we buy goes in the trash. Eating the peels could reduce a significant amount of food waste. And by the way, discarded food is the single largest category of material that ends up in municipal landfills, producing methane—a potent greenhouse gas—as it breaks down.

So why haven’t we been preparing banana peels, caramelizing them in sugar, adding them to smoothies, or frying them up in barbecue sauce? It seems Americans can’t seem to get over the ick factor—there are just some things we as a culture have deemed unfit for consumption. But if you’re open-minded enough to give banana peels a shot, we think these barbecue banana peel sandwiches are the perfect introduction.

First, choose the perfect bananas

Like with many dishes, ingredient selection is important. While you can toss very ripe or soft peels into banana bread or a smoothie, you’ll need to buy fruit that’s just underripe if you want a similar texture to pulled pork. The bananas should have tinges of green around their tops and bottoms, or at least be completely yellow and still firm. Soft, brown banana peels will get mushy and unpalatable when cooked.

Now, don’t do a 180 and waste the actual fruit: eat it as a pre-meal snack, make a fruit salad, whip up some banana pudding, or freeze some slices to use later.

Stats

• Time: 20 minutes (prep), 10 to 15 minutes (cooking)
• Material cost: $10 to $15
• Difficulty: Moderate

Ingredients

• 6 banana peels, scraped clean and shredded
• 4 hamburger buns
• 3/4 cup of water
• 1 tablespoon of olive oil
• 1/2 teaspoon of cumin
• 1 teaspoon of chili powder
• 1/2 teaspoon of ground pepper
• 1 teaspoon of garlic powder
• 1 teaspoon of liquid smoke
• 2 teaspoons of apple cider vinegar
• 1/2 tablespoon of brown mustard
• 2 tablespoons of soy sauce
• 1/2 cup of barbecue sauce, plus more to taste

Tools

• Sharp knife
• Spoon
• Fork
• Cutting board
• Medium (or large) pan with a lid
• Spatula (or flipper)

2. Shred the banana peels with a fork. Try to end up with thin strips similar to the size of pulled pork. Then, cut the strips into 2- to 3-inch-long pieces. It’ll take some elbow grease.

3. Make the sauce. In a bowl large enough to contain all the shreds, combine the water, olive oil, cumin, chili powder, pepper, garlic powder, liquid smoke, apple cider vinegar, mustard and soy sauce. Stir to mix.

6. Finish cooking. When the shreds are no longer crunchy, but not mushy, remove the lid and add the half-cup of barbeque sauce. Sauté the shreds and sauce for another 1 to 2 minutes, tasting and adding additional salt and sauce if desired.

7. Build your sandwiches. Remove the pan from the heat and transfer the saucy shreds to hamburger buns. Top with pickles, coleslaw, lettuce, shredded carrots, or whatever your heart desires, and enjoy immediately.

That’s what we call a cheap, plant-based meal that reduces food waste, saves money, and tastes great doing it. Just don’t expect there to be leftovers.

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Deep underground in Townsend, Tennessee, hidden in a dark corner of a meandering cave system just a stone’s throw from Great Smoky Mountains National Park, a technological marvel sits nestled within a natural one: AS107, one of the most—if not the most—sensitive seismographs in the world.

If you were one of the thousands of visitors who tour the cave every month, you probably wouldn’t even realize it’s there. A nondescript metal box sits on a natural shelf off the main walking path, tucked away in the shadows. The only intimation that such sensitive machinery resides in the dark passageways at all is the connected readout station silently recording data in the corner of the visitor center.

But the Tuckaleechee station is more than a peripheral tourist attraction for passionate geologists: It’s a finger on the pulse of US seismological activity and a consequential piece of equipment for national and international security.

Finding the perfect cave

Two children, Bill Vananda and Harry Myers, first plunged into the cavern’ depths in the 1930s with gas lanterns and a spirit of adventure. They turned it into the attraction it is today, but cavern owner Benjamin Vananda, a southern-accented, fast-talking geology enthusiast and Vananda’s grandson, is now the one stationed behind the front desk, ready and eager to chat about all things seismic, starting with the seismograph. 

The box within the cave is known, depending on which of the half dozen or more organizations is monitoring the data it collects, as SEISMICTKL or AS107—Auxiliary Seismic Station 107, the second “S” wisely eliminated from the acronym. “We have the most consistent data streaming of any seismic station,” Vananda says. “It’ll pick up pretty much anything that shakes the ground.”

Like most seismographs, AS107 picks up tectonic shifts and records each event’s unique frequency signature. How? As seismic waves travel in concentric circles all around the planet, the further they go, the lower the frequency detected by a seismograph. An event originating in Indonesia, for example, will be read as a low frequency on a seismograph in Tennessee, which, especially when used in conjunction with other seismographs around the world, helps pinpoint where the earthquake originated. 

[Related: Deep-sea internet cables could help sense distant earthquake rumbles]

Vananda likens the signals to the ripples that result from throwing a rock into a pond: The farther the ripples get from the source, the wider and softer they are, eventually dissipating into little more than a whisper. AS107 is sensitive enough to pick up ocean waves crashing on a beach in China. They’ll be faint, but they will register.

It has also detected disturbances close to home, like local landslides and quarry blasts, plus the mysterious booms in 2018 in Maryville, Tennessee, that some sources suggest may have been a small earthquake. More widely, it has detected nuclear tests and detonations around the world. 

The seismic station in Tuckaleechee Caverns, however, didn’t start out as a nuclear-monitoring device. The first machine was installed in 1978, when the Tennessee Valley Authority wanted to monitor how water displaced by newly constructed dams affected the region’s tectonic plates.

Greg Steiner and Jim Zollweg, working for the Tennessee Earthquake Information Center or TEIC (now the Center for Earthquake Research and Information), were charged with selecting a location for the first station. They picked the caverns after a scouting trip where they spotted an ad for the attraction near their hotel. 

“A cave would be an ideal place,” Steiner remembers declaring. There weren’t many stations in eastern Tennessee at the time, and a cavern would provide cleaner readouts since it was protected from wind—a notable issue in Appalachia. An underground station also meant there would be less interference due to traffic or construction.

[Related: Look inside the hidden world of Earth’s most beautiful caves]

By the time they got the whole setup installed and wired, the TEIC team realized just how perfect the site was. As Steiner recalls, Zollweg exclaimed: “‘Wow, this is a quiet site! I’ve never seen a site this quiet.’”

The caves are deep enough to reduce the influence of human-made noise from factories, railroads, and interstates, none of which are even located nearby. What’s more, the seismograph is mounted to ancient limestone bedrock, which offers a clean read of natural activity with excellent reverberations and no degradation of seismic vibration. As a bonus, it’s far from a coast where wind and waves can affect data.

It’s also consistently cool. “The sensor and digitizer of Tuckaleechee is installed within a cave where the temperature is constant at approximately 59 degrees Fahrenheit year-round, which is beneficial for precision of seismic measurements,” explains Paulina Bittner, waveform lead analyst at the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBTO). “Changes in temperature are a source of instrument noise.” 

The evolution of the seismograph 

The original Tuckaleechee station was a paper-and-stylus-type recorder that engraved seismological activity like a record. As the earth moved, a metal needle mounted on a frame scratched a record of its movements on a soot-covered sheet, called smoke paper.

But having cavern co-owners Vananda and Myers handle, ship, and set up the smoked readouts on a regular basis proved problematic. While it wasn’t difficult work, the caverns were only open from Memorial Day to Labor Day, meaning no one was around to add soot to the paper, change the records, and mail them to the University of Tennessee. In the off-season, the setup was relocated to a hole in Myers’s backyard.

The seismometer was replaced by a pen-and-ink version of the technology. It wasn’t as accurate, but was less time consuming to operate—a single-component system that only measured up and down movement of tectonic activity—and in 1981 TEIC purchased a dedicated phone line to send continuous readouts to the University.

After the University of Tennessee at Knoxville took over monitoring in 1995, the technology was upgraded again. The new tool, a broadband detector, could amplify the high frequencies of more distant events. Local geologists took note of how quiet the site was and recommended the CTBTO monitor it.

The US government was keen to keep tabs on other nations’ nuclear tests. In June 2006, the upgraded three-component station (which uses three pendulums to measure the full range of how seismic waves move in vertical and horizontal directions, or three-dimensional space) was certified and connected to the International Monitoring System, a worldwide network of monitoring stations. It has been sending continuous data—every 300ths of a millisecond—via satellite to the US government, CTBTO, and more ever since.

Who monitors the quake-watcher?

As a result, this station has become valuable to international security. According to Bittner, much of the data is used to detect potential violations of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, pinpoint the location of these events, and characterize their seismic sources to help automatically screen out natural events like earthquakes.

In fact, Bittner says that in the last year, data from AS107 contributed to detecting 450 events and improving the location of 100 events. Three of those events were detections of nuclear tests announced by North Korea in 2016 and 2017.

Tuckaleechee station’s seismic data can also help geologists appraise Earth’s internal structure and the hazards that originate there, like earthquake hazard mapping and probability. It can detect and record small magnitude earthquakes at distances of more than 1,000 miles, which may help scientists, geologists and seismologists learn more about these natural events, in addition to warning at-risk communities of impending tsunamis. 

All from a humble cave in Tennessee.

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Interest in sustainable travel has been high for the last few years, and the airlines, tour companies, destinations, and accommodations that serve these eco-conscious explorers seem to understand this. But while businesses tout the steps they’ve taken to mitigate climate impacts, it can be hard to decipher whether they’re taking sustainability seriously or simply greenwashing their meager efforts in a bid to secure the almighty tourist dollar.

If you count yourself among the 80 to 90 percent of travelers eager to do more good than harm across the globe, our hope is that this story will help you see through the marketing haze to understand what travel companies are really doing to keep the planet—and humanity—thriving.

Consider plastic straws. At this point, most people know straws end up in waterways in astounding numbers, harm wildlife, and are incredibly difficult to recycle. That understanding is largely due to marketing, and this widespread knowledge is why companies like coffee shops and hotels may shout from the rooftops about how they have banished the vile things. But if those businesses are still using conventional plastic and hot beverage cups (that lining inside your disposable coffee cup makes it non-recyclable), wrapping sandwiches in plastic, and offering single-use plastic take-out containers, while failing to provide recycling bins, the lack of straws doesn’t matter. While it is a welcome and marginally beneficial effort, the full picture indicates the business cares more about marketing and its bottom line than actual sustainability.

Likewise, a hotel chain may post signs around your room announcing its “green initiatives.” These almost always involve asking you to hang up your towel and use it again to help the hotel save water and energy. But whether housekeeping leaves your towels alone or secretly washes them daily anyway, chances are the property still offers single-use plastic shampoo bottles, serves breakfast on polystyrene foam plates, and uses inefficient lighting, heating, and cooling systems. Not to mention they may not be tracking their carbon footprint.

In both cases, these companies are hyper-focusing on a single issue that has found its way into the spotlight, but isn’t enough on its own to cause significant change. If a company wants to be truly sustainable, it has to focus less on hype and more on results.

Not only is transportation a dirty business, climate-wise, but visitors can also negatively (or positively) impact the landscape and communities of the places they visit. So your first consideration while trying to identify potential greenwashing while investigating travel brands should be transparency: If a brand or business is truly sustainability-minded, it should be unambiguous regarding its current impact on the planet and destinations it serves and its specific goals for improving its own practices.

[Related: A guide to eco-friendly travel]

At the very least, Morgan says, the company should be honest and forthcoming about its role in the climate crisis and offer a statement of its intent to be part of the solution. That could include a specific list of efforts aimed at making the world a better, cleaner place, while simultaneously acknowledging industry challenges.

Be wary of vague language and terms like “eco-tourism” or “green travel,” warns Court Whelan, chief sustainability officer at Natural Habitat Adventures, a tour company that works with local and international conservation organizations in the areas it visits. It’s easy for companies to overstate their positive impact while focusing efforts solely on issues in the spotlight (like straws) instead of working toward actual change (like investing in communities).

So take a look at the company’s mission statement and focus. Does sustainability play into it at all? If so, does it cite specific studies, examples, and industry or operational challenges? Is the brand collecting information about what it has done and reporting its efforts and impact? Without that data, it’s hard to claim you’re moving forward if you don’t know where you started.

Also research if the brand mentions topics like economic impact in the destination (empowering and supporting local businesses), waste reduction in their normal operations (eradicating single-use plastic and disposable products), supporting natural biodiversity (planting trees or supporting ecological endeavors), and carbon reduction (reducing and/or offsetting emissions). If any of these topics are front-and-center (ideally most of them are), it likely signifies the company is on a mission to improve the lives of travelers, locals, and the planet. And if they talk about donating money, see if you can find out how much they actually give.

Finally, don’t be afraid to ask companies tough questions. Does the brand offset their emissions or are they working to decarbonize? Offsets theoretically counteract emissions, but decarbonization eliminates them entirely. Are they testing alternative fuel sources or planning to transition to alternative energy? Both can reduce carbon footprints and lessen global reliance on non-renewable resources. Do they employ local tour guides and reserve stays at locally-owned accommodations? Keeping jobs local can help ensure tourism actually benefits the places people want to visit.

The answers you get won’t necessarily indicate the company is good or bad, but it should at least have a position and a plan, Whelan says, adding that if employees at the customer-facing level can’t answer questions about sustainable measures, there’s a good chance these practices aren’t a priority.

Don’t get tricked by certifications

One thing you shouldn’t count on to tell the story is certifications. “The tourism sector seems to be flooded with a plethora of seals and approvals,” Morgan says. “It’s very difficult to tell by looking at them what they actually mean.”

So google it. Research how robust the program is, how transparent the certifying body is, and what’s required for accreditation. Does the certifying organization use third party auditors to avoid bias? It will require a bit of homework, but what you find can be truly enlightening.

Despite the inherent challenges, travel and tourism has immense power to enrich our lives and the lives of the communities we visit. The choices we make can have a real positive impact—as long as we’re willing to take the time to separate greenwashing from actions that actually work. Quitting travel altogether isn’t a feasible solution, but finding out how to do it more responsibly is.

The post Smart tips for travelers looking for a sustainable getaway appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

The idea of an existence free from single-use plastic is intoxicating. Sometimes it even seems imperative, what with the World Economic Forum saying the ocean will be filled with more plastic than fish by 2050. But the idea of a zero-waste lifestyle can also sound intimidating and unattainable. This is especially true when you think about everything you buy each week and realize how much of it is just made to be thrown in the trash.

Fortunately, reducing the waste we produce doesn’t have to be all or nothing. In fact, there’s plenty we can do on an individual level to help keep single-use out of use, starting with a simple trip to the grocery store.

What is zero-waste?

As the name implies, zero-waste is a way of living that produces as little waste as possible. And it’s not just something universities, cities, and states are increasingly committing to—it’s an achievable mission for individuals and families, too. At this level, zero-waste means buying fewer single-use products and repurposing reusable items as often as you can, all with the goal of throwing less garbage into overflowing landfills.

People throw away their weight in garbage every month, and in addition to creating environmental and public health issues, we’re running out of room to store it all. Throwing plastic in the recycle bin isn’t an ideal solution, either: In 2018, we recycled only 8.7 percent of plastics, due in large part to non-recyclable items contaminating the process.

[Related: Can zero-waste stores be affordable for everyone?]

From a practical standpoint, zero-waste living includes compost bins for food scraps, reusable silicone bags instead of disposable zip-tops, glass jars instead of plastic containers, and buying food from bulk bins or in cardboard packaging.

It’s easier to achieve a zero-waste lifestyle if you think of products in a circular way instead of in the typical linear manner of buy-use-trash-repeat. When you’re at the store, ask yourself if you can use what you’re purchasing just once or if you’ll be able to reuse it and recycle it. For example, you can repurpose a glass jar and even if you don’t have alternative uses for it, it can be recycled infinitely. A plastic bag, on the other hand, is difficult to recycle (if at all) and will promptly end up in a landfill or in waterways.

A common mistake is thinking zero-waste is only for the wealthy. Yes, filling your fridge with local, organic farmers market produce, buying lip balm packaged in cardboard, and avoiding single-use plastic entirely can be resource-intensive—but it doesn’t have to be. 

In fact, according to Isaias Hernandez, environmental justice & sustainability advocate, educator, and creator of Queer Brown Vegan, shopping with the goal of creating less waste is about asking how we can extend ourselves to a deeper level of thinking. This means thinking less about the things you can buy to reduce waste and more about what happens to those products once you’re done with them. 

Tips for shopping zero-waste

First, know that you don’t have to buy a single thing to create less waste with your grocery shopping. 

“It’s important to remember the most eco-friendly thing you can do is use what you already have,” says Kathryn Kellogg, the founder of sustainable lifestyle website Going Zero Waste.

Use every drop of cooking oil or toothpaste. Learn how to store food so it lasts longer. Repurpose salsa jars for leftovers. Use any old bag-like item to carry bulk products—Hernandez recommends pillowcases and the like. Don’t feel the need to go purchase fancy new “eco-friendly” products when things you already have will work just as well.

Then get shopping. Become familiar with the bulk bins at grocery stores near you and bring glass jars or reusable bags to fill with things like grains, beans, nuts, and dried fruit. Farmers’ markets are also a great way to score produce that’s often free from packaging.

If neither is a practical option for you, choose items in glass or metal packaging as they are easier to recycle. Cardboard creates less waste, too, as it is both recyclable and biodegradable.

In the produce department, opt for whole, fresh produce and forego the plastic produce bags or pre-cut products in disposable containers. Leave fruit and vegetables loose in your cart or bring your own reusable bags if you don’t want to fumble with a dozen apples.

If you never seem to remember your reusable shopping bags, leave a few in the backseat of your car or, as Kellogg suggests, clip several small packable bags together and attach them to your key ring or on your bike so they’re always available.

Then, proceed to create less waste by buying less. According to studies, 40 percent of food in the US is wasted, so take stock of how much you actually eat so you don’t end up throwing anything out. Also, consider replacing that one big weekly haul with more short trips to the grocery store so you only buy exactly what you need.

If you’re feeling ambitious and have the space, learn to compost food scraps, including peels, cores, and eggshells, and use them to fertilize your plants.

Also, keep in mind expiration dates are not federally regulated and don’t indicate an actual deadline by which food becomes inedible—they’re more of a guideline for freshness than a hard-and-fast rule. So don’t just toss food because it’s past the date on the package. 

“It’s always best to do a taste and smell test before throwing things out,” Kellogg suggests.

Avoid single-serve snacks and instead buy larger quantities that you can separate into your own smaller reusable containers at home. Skip bottled water—tap water is actually more regulated than what you can find at the store, so stick with what you get at home. If you don’t like the taste of your water, investing in a filter is a great idea.

[Related: How to keep food, plastic, and fabric out of the landfill]

As for other household items, swap disposables like paper towels, napkins, plastic wrap, and baggies with reusable waste-free alternatives like cloth towels, reusable wax wraps, washable silicone bags, resealable storage containers, and more. As a bonus, you’ll save money in the long run.

Finally, if you have the capacity, make products like yogurt, tomato sauce, and snack bars at home instead of buying them in disposable packaging. If you’re really feeling adventurous, take a foraging course or learn how to grow your own herbs and vegetables. Then, when you do have to buy stuff, opt for packaging you can upcycle: you can use jars to store tomorrow’s lunch, and hot sauce bottles for homemade salad dressing. The options are endless.

Every bit matters

According to Hernandez, zero-waste grocery shopping, just like sustainability in general, is a spectrum. 

“Don’t focus on perfectionism,” he says, especially if doing so has a negative impact on your physical or mental health. 

He suggests starting with a question: How can I reduce waste by 10 percent? Look at your cart, take stock of how much plastic and waste is there, and make one swap at a time as it’s feasible and practical. You’ll be reducing the amount of waste you create in no time.

The post How to go zero-waste at the grocery store appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

In the wilderness, fighting dehydration by collecting water from streams or springs is often necessary. But a single sip from that crystal clear, ice-cold flow could mean uncomfortable gastrointestinal distress that will have you running to dig a cat hole every 30 minutes.

Because no matter how clean a freshwater source seems to be, there’s a good chance it carries pathogens and bacteria that can make you sick. Giardia, rotavirus, and dysentery—all found in waterways contaminated by human or animal waste—are just a few examples of what may be lurking, invisible, in one innocent swig. True—drinking straight from a natural source might not always make you sick, but it only takes one experience with serious diarrhea while camping to convince you it’s not worth taking the chance.

Clarify your situation

The first step toward purification—or disinfection, the term some outdoor professionals prefer—is clarification, or simple filtering. This will remove suspended particulate matter like dirt and sediment, as well as many microorganisms. “When you start [disinfecting] water, you want to start with visually clear water,” says Paul Nicolazzo, president and director of the Wilderness Medicine Training Center. If water is cloudy or there are visible particles floating around, clarification is especially important.

Fortunately, clarifying cloudy or sediment-filled water is easy. You can either let untreated water stand in a container for a minimum of one hour and let the debris settle, or strain it through a coffee filter or clean bandana. Straining will collect fine pieces of debris so you can continue with purification and is especially important if water is still cloudy after letting it settle.

You can also use a coagulation method, which encourages both visible and microscopic particles to clump together. Just pour cloudy water into a bucket or wide-mouth container, and add 1/8 to 1/4 teaspoon of aluminum sulfate powder (often available as Alum or pickling powder at your local hardware store) per 1 gallon of water. Stir the water for 5 minutes, allow it to settle, then scoop out the clean water at the top of the vessel. This is faster than straining water through a coffee filter, and useful if you’re trying to produce drinking water for a large group of people.

Eliminate microorganisms

While clarification removes visible contaminants, purification, if done correctly, frees water from all infectious microorganisms. Many backpackers debate whether all water needs to be purified, but it’s easy to do and will further reduce the chance you’ll contract one of those ghastly gastro-intestinal illnesses.

The most effective method of purification is boiling your water—doing so for at least 1 minute kills everything from viruses to bacteria. Most backpackers and explorers carry a stove, so if you’ve got one of those, you don’t need anything else. And if you’re already planning to boil water for hot beverages and meals, it’s a no-brainer. Keep in mind that if you boil all of your drinking water, you’ll need additional stove fuel, especially if you’re camping at higher altitudes where water takes longer to boil.

Chemicals like iodine, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide are other options. They are cheap, effective, and available at most outdoor stores and drugstores. They come in liquid, powder, or tablet form and can be added directly to water, though they do tend to take more time to disinfect than boiling—about 30 minutes depending on the type, and even longer in cold water.

The chlorine-based options have almost no flavor, and even though iodine gives water an unappealing taste, that can be fixed by adding a bit of ascorbic acid (vitamin C powder). Also, keep in mind these chemicals won’t eliminate cryptosporidium cysts, which cause nasty gastrointestinal distress and are more likely to be found closer to civilization. All other methods of purification do a better job at removing this specific parasite.

Another popular purification method is filtering. Filters come in two varieties: ceramic and charcoal. The latter is more popular with backpackers since it’s lighter and cheaper, but ceramic ones are reusable. A filter size of 0.2 microns effectively removes parasites, protozoa such as cryptosporidium cysts, and bacteria. However, filtering won’t clear out viruses. Even filters than contain iodine resins aren’t entirely reliable because of how briefly water is in contact with them.

If you can’t boil your water and you opt for a filter, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends also using chemical disinfectants to kill the largest amount of pathogens.

Another option is to use ultraviolet light pens. Starting at around $80, they are more expensive than chemicals and most filters and require batteries, making them unappealing to some. As their name says, UV pens use short-wavelength UV (UV-C) light to kill pathogens and most of them purify one pint of water in 45 seconds, and one liter in about 90 seconds. They aren’t the fastest choice if you’re trying to disinfect water for large groups, but are quick and effective for individuals. To use this method effectively, it’s extra important for the water to be clarified and free from debris.

In an emergency, choose the right source

If you’re stuck in the wilderness with no UV pen, stove, or chloride tablets, there are still ways to decrease your risk of swallowing a nasty bug. First, forget the myth that running water is safer to drink. That’s just not true. “Even water that looks clear and clean isn’t always that way,” says Nicolazzo, who has suffered from both dysentery and giardiasis and has spent 45 years in the wilderness education industry. Often, you’re better off collecting water from a foot below the surface of a large, clear, not stagnant lake—though that’s still not free from risk. Be especially cautious of streams or rivers during the spring, when melting snow carries animal and human waste that was deposited over the winter, downhill.

If a stream is your only option, make sure not to collect water downstream from popular campsites or animal pastures. Also, the closer you are to the source, the cleaner the water probably is. If you find an underground spring, you’ve hit the jackpot. Likewise, water at higher elevations is also generally safer, as it hasn’t traveled downstream and picked up contaminants along the way. However, ice isn’t a safe bet since bacteria can survive for months on frozen surfaces.

Alternatively, water found immediately after a rain in potholes in the rim rock of many southwestern canyons is typically safe to drink.

Purify wisely

Purification methods in the backcountry are far from one-size fits all. Nicolazzo uses several when he heads outdoors—he boils water for tea and meals, uses a UV pen for drinking water, and carries povidone-iodine, used to disinfect both wounds and water. I often filter water, then use chlorine dioxide tablets, as per CDC recommendations.

If you’re planning to disinfect water with chemicals and want to be as efficient as possible, Drew Leemon, risk management director at the National Outdoor Leadership School, suggests bringing two bottles. In short: one contains treated water that’s ready to drink, and the other is full of water that’s in the process of being treated. That way, you won’t have to sit and wait for the purification process when you run out of disinfected water, which also reduces your risk of dehydration.

Outdoors, contracting a gastrointestinal illnesses can ruin your expedition in the best scenario, or be life threatening in the worst. Plan ahead and treat any water you drink to skip the diarrhea and enjoy the time you spend outdoors.

The post Survive the great outdoors by making your own drinkable water appeared first on Popular Science.

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The trails are devoid of human life, animals wander freely through the woods, and snow falls soundlessly on the treetops—it’s wintertime in the great outdoors. But despite the sparkling vistas, uncrowded trails, and the beauty nature offers to hikers in this time of the year, many never experience the wonder that the fourth season offers because of one tiny detail: the cold.

What most people don’t know is that a little know-how, the right equipment, and simply wearing multiple layers can help with the challenges of camping in the winter. With some planning, you’ll easily stave off frostbite, sleepless nights, and never-ending shivers, all while enjoying beautiful natural sights.

Don’t fear the cold

“Winter is one of the best times to be outdoors,” says Tayson Whittaker, winter camping enthusiast, and founder of outdoor gear and clothing company Outdoor Vitals. He cites seclusion, wildlife activity, and the peace and quiet of a landscape covered in snow as some of the reasons you’re just as likely to find him setting up camp in the snow as next to a field of spring flowers.

To him, it’s easy to explain why more people aren’t outside, experiencing the magic of seeing a herd of elk feeding amid freshly fallen snow: “It’s plain and simple fear—fear of being cold, of doing something they haven’t, of the unknown, of the hypotheticals,” Whittaker says.

But to be fair, there are plenty of hypotheticals regarding cold that would deter someone from camping in the middle of winter: frostbitten extremities, feet that won’t thaw, a chill that never abates, nights spent awake and shivering in a frosty tent, wet gear, and worst of all, hypothermia. Whittaker has personally suffered through most of these situations, but he says preparation can make it easy for anybody to avoid them.

Choose the right gear

While warm temperatures rarely require hefty sleeping bags or insulated sleeping pads, winter temps demand you be familiar with your gear and what it can handle. But fear not—this doesn’t necessarily mean you have to spend a lot of money on new equipment. “You don’t have to reinvent the wheel,” Whittaker says. “A lot of times, you can take the gear you have and stretch it to work in that forth season.”

Start with a warm enough sleeping bag for the temperatures you anticipate. (Keep in mind men’s and women’s bags are rated differently, since women tend to sleep colder.) If you don’t think your current bag will do, you still might not have to shell out several hundred dollars for a new one—you can often spend less than $50 on a sleeping bag liner or a backpacking quilt and layer the bags.

But that’s just half the battle. A sleeping pad designed for winter is what separates you from the frozen ground, so it’s also of the utmost importance. Choose an insulated variety with an R-value (an insulation rating used from everything to sleeping pads to the fiberglass you stuff in your walls) of at least four, or simply stack an inflatable pad on top of a closed-cell foam pad for extra insulation from below.

Next, mind your tent: “Make sure you have a shelter that can handle a bit of a snow load,” Whittaker says, warning that if it can’t, the entire structure could cave. Four-season tents are designed to handle harsh winter conditions and the extra weight of snow, but they are expensive and less commonly stocked at your local outdoor retailer. A three-season shelter will do the job, too, as long as it’s freestanding. But Whittaker recommends avoiding single-wall tents or semi-freestanding tents that don’t have sturdy frames, since they are more likely to bow and collapse under a few inches of build-up.

As for boots, opt for an insulated pair. If they have removable linings, keep them in your sleeping bag at night so you don’t have to put your feet in cold snow boots in the morning. You can also keep your boots in a zip-top bag inside your sleeping bag to prevent them from freezing in extra cold temperatures.

Keep everything dry

Wet gear is often the first sign that trouble is on the horizon. That’s because if your jacket, sleeping bag, or boots get wet in the winter, they won’t dry out as quickly as they would in warmer weather. In fact, if temperatures are below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, they’ll freeze before they dry.

That’s why keeping everything as dry as possible is crucial. And that goes for clothing and gear alike. These are the maxims you need to abide by:

• Keep tents, clothing and sleeping bags in waterproof stuff-sacks inside your backpack.
• Don waterproof gloves and keep a spare pair handy in case they get soggy.
• Wear waterproof boots and gaiters to keep the snow from soaking your socks and always carry several extra pairs.
• Be particularly careful with the clothes you sleep in. A warm base layer and a dry pair of socks are vital when it’s time to turn in for the night. Don’t even try sleeping in the same damp clothes you hiked in—you’ll be in for a long, miserable night.

Layer it up

“Have a layering strategy,” Whittaker says about clothing. Don’t just throw on a long-sleeve shirt and a jacket—you’ll have no wiggle room if you get too cold or too warm. Instead, start with a warm synthetic base layer, add a mid-layer such as a fleece, wool shirt, or mid-weight jacket, then top it all off with a waterproof layer. Make sure you remove layers when you start to sweat and add them back on when you begin to cool down.

But whatever you do, avoid cotton. Once the material gets wet, it doesn’t dry easily, which means that unless you want to suffer from hypothermia, you won’t be able to wear it again.

Whittaker also suggests ditching some of your down when you’re winter camping—if it gets wet, it loses its insulating power. Instead, opt for synthetic insulation in jackets and other clothing layers. Whittaker does make a case for down socks which, according to him, are the only down garment he wears in the winter. He recommends them for use inside your tent and to keep your feet warm overnight.

As for your hands, treat them like you do the rest of your body, and dress them with layers. Start with a snug synthetic base layer such fleece or nylon, which will wick moisture, provide warmth, and allow dexterity when it’s time to light your stove or set up your tent. Then layer with a waterproof glove or mitten, adding one additional layer in between for extra warmth if you feel you need it.

For your feet, start with a synthetic layer, then a thick pair of wool or synthetic socks. Make sure your boots are big enough to accommodate these layers (one size larger than what you would normally wear should do) or circulation may be restricted, which will not only be uncomfortable, but will keep you feeling cold.

Tips for winter camping

One of the upsides to camping in the snow is that you won’t have to bring as much water as you would in warmer weather. You can use clean, fallen snow and melt it in a pot over the fire until it comes to a boil—this will kill viruses and bacteria and make it safe for drinking or cooking.

Speaking of snow, stomp down on and compress the snow where you plan to place your tent so you start with a flat surface and don’t sink throughout the night. Don’t forget the area around your vestibule, either—it’ll give you a place to stash your bag and climb out of your tent without tumbling into deep snow.

If you’re worried about fingers and toes getting too cold, bring along single-use hand– and foot-warmers, or fill a water bottle with hot water before bed. Place it in your sleeping bag to help warm you up at night, but make sure the lid is on tight so you avoid getting burned or soaking your gear.

But you’re not the only one who has to keep warm: make sure your batteries, GPS, cell phone, and other devices don’t freeze, since they won’t hold a charge if they’re cold. During the day, keep them near your body in an interior jacket pocket, and store them in your sleeping bag at night. Most bags even have a special zipper pocket near your chest for this purpose.

Get out there

Don’t let winter weather keep you indoors. Instead, protect your stuff from the damp, choose gear wisely, layer up, and don’t let the thermometer readings frighten you out of enjoying the season.

“If you can backpack in the other seasons, you can backpack in the winter,” Whittaker encourages. “It’s not as scary as you think.”

The post Winter camping is a great way to see more nature and fewer people appeared first on Popular Science.

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There’s something delightfully fulfilling about taking a stroll down the block, or in your own backyard and kneeling not just to smell the wildflowers or appreciate a butterfly, but to pick yourself a snack or something to make a refreshing beverage.

Because no matter where you live, there’s likely an abundance of plants suitable for human consumption around you that you’ve been missing out on. From flavorful mallow to ubiquitous dandelion, a lot of this flora is considered weed but offer plenty in the nutrition and flavor department. 

But beware, because not all sites are free for plucking, and not everything that grows is safe to consume. Fortunately, there are several plants that are fairly easy to identify, and also make a tasty–and healthy–tea.

This is why it’s important to take extra care and learn how to identify plants using multiple descriptions and sources before imbibing. Learning to spot a species in multiple ways and knowing its flowers, leaves, and stalks can be really helpful, as it’s getting expert guidance through a foraging course or tour. When you go on a foraging walk, make sure to bring books and any visual aid that will prevent you from confusing one plant for another. 

Then, when you think you’ve found an edible plant, stop for a second and reassess—does it actually look like the picture?

“It’s easy to get carried away with your own enthusiasm, [but] resist the temptation to make the plant look like the description,” Stark says. Sometimes, it’s just not the same plant you see in your book or foraging app, even if you want it to be. 

Finally, even if you’re certain you’ve correctly identified a plant, rule out any allergies or unwanted effects by eating or drinking just a few bites or sips the first time around. If nothing goes awry in the following eight hours, you’re in the clear.

Every part of this plant is edible, including roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Pluck out as much of it as you like, rinse, and steep in near-boiling water for five minutes. You can leave it for longer if you prefer a strong flavor, or make extra and refrigerate for a refreshing iced tea.

Roasted dandelion tea is a well-known caffeine-free coffee alternative as it has a similar earthy flavor, but fresh leaves and flowers make for a lighter, sweeter profile. It may also be beneficial in helping prevent UTIs (when combined with uva ursi) and boost liver health.

Look for cone-shaped, yellow-green flower heads with no petals and small fern-like leaves. This plant smells like chamomile with a slight pineapple undertone.

To make tea, use only fresh or dried flowers (don’t use leaves, roots, or stems), and steep in hot water for five to ten minutes. As for the flavor profile, Stark describes it as a “supercharged chamomile.” It’s one of his favorite plants to forage for tea.

You can identify these long, soft needles by how they grow off the branch: in clusters of five. Chop them up into inch-long pieces or so, and pour nearly boiling water over them. Let them steep for 10 to 15 minutes, and enjoy.

The tea tastes woodsy with some citrus notes, similar to how a pine forest or your Christmas tree smells. Bonus: it contains lots of vitamin C.

Stark also recommends avoiding plants that are growing from asphalt, or from places where there’s a lot of trash or debris, like near a demolition or construction zone. Also avoid foraging near old buildings that might have had lead paint or lead pipes, and other locations where there may be far more toxins or chemicals in the soil than normal. These include gas stations, landfills, shipyards, or railroad tracks, for example.

The post 4 easy-to-forage plants you can harvest to make your own tea appeared first on Popular Science.

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Every time I travel by plane with my camping gear, I go through a process I’ve perfected over a decade of backpacking: I sit on my living room floor, carefully organizing all the camping gear I need. My top priority: make sure all items are accounted for (I once packed a tent with no tent poles) and that I haven’t forgotten anything important (like my backpacking stove or hiking boots).

The next step is crucial for air travel: ensure every piece of gear is in the right bag. After all, I’ve had to ditch pocket knives at security because I forgot they were in my carry-on, and I certainly never want to repeat the time I had to trash a whole bag of mole paste from Puebla, Mexico, because I didn’t realize pastes counted as liquid.

If it’s not clear yet, transporting camping equipment can present plenty of packing conundrums beyond what you’d expect from a typical vacation. So if you’re traveling with outdoor gear, especially for the first time, these are the tips you need to ensure you make it through security and safely to your destination with all your stuff.

General carry-on restrictions

First, a quick refresher on the general rules and guidelines for carry-ons. The size of your carry-on matters, of course, but dimensions and restrictions in that department are up to individual airlines, so check the airline’s website or app to see what size bag you can fly with.

The most important rule when it comes to making it through security with all the items you packed, including your precious mole paste, is TSA’s 3-1-1 rule: All liquids that you put in your carry-on must be 3.4 ounces (100 milliliters) or less and inside a single clear, one-quart zip-top bag. Anything larger than 3.4 ounces has to go in your checked luggage.

According to AskTSA on Twitter, that includes any item you can “pump, squeeze, spread, smear, spray, or spill.” Think toothpaste, peanut butter, sunscreen, liquid electrolytes, and bug spray. If in doubt, put it in your checked bag or leave it at home.

What can travel in your carry-on

Plenty of camping and hiking gear can go into your carry-on as long as it fits: tents (though poles and stakes may be restricted at the discretion of your airline or the security officer on duty), backpacking camp stoves (make sure there’s no fuel canister attached), and even your cooking and eating utensils (but any metal knives have to have rounded blades, like a butter knife). Scissors, too, like a pair you might have in your first aid kit, are OK as long as the blades are shorter than 4 inches measured from the pivot point. If they’re longer, you’ll have to check them.

As for batteries, they are not a security threat on their own, but the Federal Aviation Administration considers some to be hazardous material, says Lorie Dankers, spokesperson for the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), so pack with care. Everyday use batteries like AAs and AAAs, even Cs and Ds, can go in any bag, as can lithium-ion batteries if they are less than 100 watt-hours, which includes phone, laptop, camera and GPS device batteries. If your lithium-ion batteries are more powerful (101 to 160 watt-hours), you’re limited to two in your carry-on baggage. And while batteries already in your devices can go in checked luggage, extra lithium-ion batteries cannot.

Firearms can go in checked luggage, as can ammunition, but the TSA says guns must be unloaded, packed in a locked, hard-sided case, and declared to the airline at check-in. It’s a good idea to check with your airline too, to ensure that they allow firearms in checked bags.

You can also pack bug spray as long as it doesn’t have a hazmat warning and is for personal use (as opposed to products like insecticide foggers that you might use to bug-proof your whole campsite—these are not allowed). Afraid bug spray will spill or leak? Choose insect repellent wipes or bracelets instead.

Traction devices like crampons, snowshoes, and spikes that attach to the bottom of your boots are a bit trickier. The TSA’s website says some might be allowed in a carry-on, but also notes that officers can prohibit any items they feel might be a security threat. So your best bet is to check them.

Finally, reusable lighters can go in your checked luggage as long as they are empty. Full or partially full lighters are a no-go, so either buy disposables or refill reusable lighters once you arrive at your destination.

What to leave at home

As we just hinted and you may have expected, there are several items that aren’t permitted anywhere on an airplane. You’ll have to pick up those supplies when you arrive at your destination. At the top of the list is any sort of stove fuel, including solid fuel tablets. It may go without saying, but if a fire happened to break out on the plane, your packed-up fuel could help it burn longer. The Federal Aviation Administration is serious about this: it qualifies fuel as an incendiary device. You can bring an empty refillable liquid fuel bottle, though.

Matches and torch lighters should stay behind too. So go ahead and give up on the idea of making camp creme brûlée.

Bear spray is also off-limits, as the FAA categorizes it as a disabling chemical. Eliot Freeburg, another TSA officer based in Boise, explains that bear spray or pepper spray could accidentally discharge, get into the air circulation system, and be distributed throughout the plane. “That would certainly not be enjoyable or good for anybody,” he says.

[Related: A 500-pound black bear keeps breaking into California homes]

So if you’ll be camping in an area that’s home to black bears or grizzly bears, pick up a can when you arrive. Before you head back to the airport to fly home, offer any unused bear spray canisters (or stove fuel) to campers who look like they are just arriving at the park or campground. You’ll likely make their day.

Then, Freeburg suggests arriving at the airport early enough that if something in your bag does get flagged as you go through security, you will have time to check your bag, take gear back to your car, give it to someone who may have dropped you off, or prepare to ship it back home. As a last resort, you can leave prohibited items at the TSA security checkpoint for disposal.

When checking a backpack, place it in a duffel or larger bag if possible, or wrap it in protective material to keep delicate fabrics like stretchy pockets from snagging on equipment. At the very least, cinch and store all the cords, straps, and loose material that you can, and fasten all buckles and clips.

Then fly off to your next adventure, knowing you’ve packed smart and have everything you need to spend a few nights under the stars.

The post An experienced backpacker’s guide for flying with camping gear appeared first on Popular Science.

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By now, the negative effects of the climate crisis are undeniable. If we don’t change the current global warming trends by 2030, by 2050, the planet as a whole would likely need to reach net-zero emissions to prevent disastrous effects like droughts, wildfires, and rising sea levels.

While the bulk of harmful emissions is tied to large businesses and industries such as energy, farming, and manufacturing, we can’t understate the efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of smaller contributors—that includes you and your small business. 

Start by making easy and purposeful swaps in areas like packaging, for example. Decrease or eliminate the amount of single-use materials you use, and adapt the size of boxes to use as little filling per order as possible. When choosing your filling and other supplies like tape, go for biodegradable alternatives or—better yet—reuse what you already have. Shredded newspaper will protect your products while in transit, and if you already have some lying around, it’ll definitely be cheaper.

The next step is to travel less. If you work with someone you can only reach by car, use technology to communicate unless strictly necessary. Likewise, encourage employees to carpool when commuting or offer the option to work from home when possible. And if you have to travel by air, choose direct flights and economy class seats, as they have a smaller footprint. For your products, opt for ground shipping instead of air freight.

A lot of people decide to go vegetarian for environmental reasons and your business can do it too. When you’re catering for customers or employees, it’s a good idea to offer more plant-based options or ditch meat altogether, as this particular industry is a top contributor to harmful greenhouse gasses.

When it comes to furnishing your office and stores (if you have them) do so with used and recycled items, and prioritize repairing instead of replacing equipment. Then you can take the next step and switch to more sustainable materials in the products you manufacture or sell. For Kammok, a certified carbon neutral company, that meant making hammocks out of recycled materials. 

Of course, all of these changes can be tough for small businesses that don’t have the buying power to demand everyone in their supply chain make sustainable changes, says Austin Whitman, CEO at Climate Neutral, a consulting firm that helps businesses become more sustainable. In fact, oftentimes, the smaller a company is, the less power it has.

But once you’ve done what you can, don’t assume you can sit back and forget about it. “It’s not just ‘click a button and you’re in,’” says Kammock’s CEO Greg McEvilly. A small business’ reduction strategy must continuously evolve as the business changes and grows.

Of course, there’s a limit to how much you can reduce without closing up shop entirely. When you have eliminated as many emissions as possible, the next step is to offset the remainder.

You can use websites like terrapass.com or GoldStandard.org and use their calculators to determine what your footprint is. Once you have that information, you can help fund offset projects like wind farms, landfill gas capture, or reforestation from those same websites. Programs like these help either remove harmful excess emissions like carbon and methane from the environment or lessen our reliance on non-renewable resources. 

But before you invest, do some research to make sure the projects you’re funding are legitimate. Look for third-party verifications and do some digging to see how much of your investment goes to actual offsets as opposed to the organization’s overhead and business expenses. You can also check certifying organizations’ websites and check out the offset programs they’ve approved. 

“[Going carbon neutral] is a great way to make a conscious effort towards creating a better world through our businesses,” says McEvilly. “I believe that enterprise should be about human flourishing and that businesses are powerful vehicles that can drive that.” 

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Snow-covered glittering pines, empty trails, and leafless vistas that let you see for miles. Hiking in the winter can be a stunning and magical experience, but outdoor enthusiasts often avoid it. And for fair reasons, too—it’s cold, you need more clothing and gear, and it presents challenges and safety concerns hikers don’t have to deal with in fair weather.

But you don’t need to stay indoors as days get shorter. Making sure you’re prepared for the fourth season before you head outside can help you reap the great benefits of winter hiking.

Evan Gill, an expert mountain climber known on YouTube as Black Sherpa, recommends starting with a warm, snug, synthetic base layer designed to wick moisture and dry quickly. Then add a warm mid-layer like a fleece or synthetic hoodie. If it’s really cold out, top it all off with a puffy jacket, ideally one that uses synthetic insulation, as when down gets wet it loses its ability to insulate. Finish things off with a water- and windproof shell to protect you from the elements. 

If you’re wondering if all those layers are actually necessary, the answer is simple. Body temperature fluctuates wildly when you’re exerting yourself in the cold, so you need to be able to make small adjustments throughout the day to stay warm, but also to keep any moisture out. Once your clothes become damp, they lose the ability to keep you warm and there’s a greater chance for hypothermia to set in.

When it comes to winter hiking, avoiding sweat is the name of the game, and the key to winning it, says Schnitt, is to be proactive. Before you start hiking up a slope, remove a mid-layer or two, and as soon as you start heading down or stop to take a break, replace those layers so you don’t get cold. Once you start feeling a chill it’s harder to warm back up.

What equipment you bring along with you will depend on the terrain. If there’s deep snow, you’ll likely need snowshoes and trekking poles. You may also want to consider waterproof gaiters to keep the white stuff out of your boots. If you’re expecting thick ice, bring crampons, heavy-duty spikes that attach to the bottom of your boots. And in any winter conditions, Schnitt recommends keeping a pair of microspikes in your pack. These small, lightweight spikes that you strap around the soles of your shoes come handy any time you want a little extra traction, like when you tread on ice or thinner snow. 

Carry plenty of water in an insulated bottle or get an insulated hose for your hydration reservoir to keep it from freezing and sip regularly. You can also add electrolytes to water to delay freezing: the salt will slow down the process.

Be prepared

“Plan ahead and prepare” is a good rule to have for any outdoor outing, but it’s especially true during winter. For starters, no matter how many times you’ve hiked a trail in warm weather, don’t think it’ll offer the same experience in the colder months of the year. 

It might take a bit more preparation and gear, but winter can be a rewarding time of year to enjoy time outside. So layer up, brush up on your navigation skills, hydrate, and make the most out of the cold temperatures.

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There’s nothing quite like hopping on a bicycle to make you feel like a kid again. But cycling on the road, alongside giant hunks of steel and glass moving at multiple times your speed, has the potential to make even seasoned cyclists anxious. Not to mention the scads of new cyclists that have hit the streets since the pandemic began.

Fortunately, there are simple ways to protect yourself and prevent dangerous interactions with other vehicles on the road when you mount your pedal-powered steed.

According to data from the US Department of Transportation, most of those accidents involved men and occurred in the evening between 6:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m., which coincides with peak traffic hours and lower visibility. Women are still a minority among cyclists and studies show that they tend to stress safety and seek out dedicated bike lanes more often than their male counterparts. This is likely what prevents them from injury to life and limb.

Although things may be slightly improving as of late, long-term stats show a more dire picture: deaths among cyclists 20 years and older have tripled since 1975. This is an alarming increase, but it may also be explained in part by the higher number of people riding bikes on the road these days.

With that bump in statistics the importance of riding safely is tantamount, especially among new cyclists or those who haven’t dusted off their wheels in a while.

Your bike must also be outfitted with lights if you plan to ride in the dark, at dawn or dusk. The classic setup requires a white light in front and a red light in back. But if you want to go beyond the law and increase your visibility (and safety) in low-light conditions, add more battery-powered or rechargeable lights or reflective strips to your bike frame or wheels and don reflective clothing or backpacks.

As for riding on the sidewalk, while most cities in the US don’t specifically prohibit it, they often discourage it. And contrary to what you might think, riding on the sidewalk is not the safer option, as cyclists should always yield the right of way to pedestrians. But perhaps most importantly, cars don’t pay as much attention to what’s on the sidewalk, so if you are crossing the road or even a driveway while riding on the sidewalk, a motorist may not see you. So unless there’s no other choice, skip the sidewalk altogether.

As for alcohol, the same rules apply as if you were driving: don’t drink and ride. For starters, it’s illegal in several states, but even if laws don’t specifically prohibit riding under the influence, it can be deadly—21 percent of cyclists 16 and older who were killed in 2019 had blood alcohol concentrations at or above 0.08 percent. So if you’re impaired, call a cab.

Riding predictably is also important to avoid accidents, as unpredictable cyclists make drivers nervous. This means staying in your lane, not swerving in and out of traffic, and signaling your intentions with the appropriate hand signals, says Doogie Roux, Houston- and Tulsa-based micromobility consultant and cyclist. 

It doesn’t hurt to be overly cautious when riding on the road. Assuming drivers don’t see you in high-traffic and high-tension areas while being constantly aware of your surroundings is a great idea. Making yourself as visible as possible—through lights, clothing, and even movement—also helps.  

Roux adds that you should always remain on high alert while riding: “Look ahead. A lot can be avoided by seeing hazards and situations before getting to them. Notice them early, be proactive, stay safe.”

Almost as important as avoiding close calls with moving vehicles is avoiding close calls with parked ones. Referred to as getting “doored,” many cyclists have experienced the panic of a driver in a parked car swinging their door open into the road or a bike lane without checking to see if there’s a cyclist present. This usually results in knocked-off cyclists, or violent (and dangerous) swerving into traffic. If you can, ride a few feet away from parallel parked cars, and always make sure to check windows and mirrors to see if there’s someone in the car who might cause a problem.

Cars stopped or slowing can be just as dangerous and unpredictable. In fact, 35 percent of accidents occur at intersections. There have been accidents or close calls when impatient and seemingly static motorists have swiftly swerved into a biking lane to get ahead of traffic, narrowly missing or downright hitting a biker. So even if you’re riding on your designated lane, never assume just because traffic is stopped or crawling you can relax.

Make motorists see you as human. Ride confidently and look drivers in the eyes if you can, especially at intersections—after all, you have as much right to be on the road as they do.

[Related: 7 mistakes beginner cyclists make, and how to avoid them]

If you’re starting to feel unsafe with whatever’s around you, it’s also OK to pull over and let a moment pass. Once you feel better or when you get to your destination, think about what made you feel unsafe and how you can avoid that in the future.

For me, that’s finding alternate routes around any stretch of major roads with fast-moving cars and no bike lanes. For you, it might be using apps like Strava (available for iOS and Android) or Bikemap (available for iOS and Android), learning where you can find protected bike lanes or paths, joining social rides until you feel comfortable on your own, or hopping on the sidewalk for a short stretch. Do what feels right for you.

And drivers—share the road. Give cyclists at least three feet of space between their handlebars and your mirror. Better yet, get into another lane if you can.

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When was the last time you stopped and listened to the wind blowing through the trees? Or notice how the lake in the park at the end of the street glistens? If it’s been a minute, you might want to consider going outdoors. Studies show that eco- or nature therapy (also known as spending time outside) can have a positive impact on our mental and physical health. And we could all use some help with that these days.

Nature’s relationship to our psyche has garnered a fair amount of attention over the last decade or so. Science has shown it is an effective and often free way to reduce anxiety, improve focus and memory, enhance a general feeling of wellbeing, and even boost immune function. With anxiety and depression numbers on the rise, more and more psychologists and therapists are prescribing time outdoors to their patients to help them improve their condition. 

If you’re ready to try it out for yourself, put on some sunblock and give trees a chance. In the worst-case scenario, you end up enjoying a nice walk. 

What is ecotherapy?

Like any other kind of therapy, the purpose of ecotherapy is to benefit mental health by helping patients tune in with the natural world. But it’s about more than using nature as a backdrop for other therapeutic practices—it’s about building a relationship, a connection, between you and the world you live in, says Craig Chalquist, professor of east-west psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies, and co-editor of Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind. And as it turns out, it’s a very beneficial relationship to invest in. 

[Related: There isn’t much science supporting wilderness therapy for teens]

Shinrin-yoku or forest bathing may be the most well-known method in nature therapy. Contrary to what you might think, this Japanese practice doesn’t require actual bathing, and it involves consciously and contemplatively immersing yourself in the sensory experience of the forest. The point is to spend time “taking in the forest atmosphere” and soaking up the sights, sounds and smells of your natural surroundings. Research has shown patients experience a handful of benefits after this experience—from lower concentrations of the stress hormone cortisol, to lower blood pressure. 

But there are plenty of activities that qualify as ecotherapy. As long as the goal is to be mindful, observant, and surrounded by nature, anything, from taking a walk in the park to snuggling with a therapy animal, or even filling indoor spaces with more plants, qualifies.

How ecotherapy works

Going for a walk and taking a deep breath of fresh air will help you improve your mood. But science shows that location makes a difference, and the maxim is clear—the more nature, the better. Various studies have noted participants have significantly reduced pulse rates, decreased depression, fatigue, anxiety, and confusion post-forest bathing than after strolling in urban areas. Some studies even suggest certain beneficial bacteria in soil can give serotonin levels a bump, meaning dirt could alleviate feelings of depression.

Still, every bit counts. Other data shows that something as simple as a fish tank can help increase appetite in Alzheimer’s patients, and studies show post-op patients recover faster when they have a window to green space in their room.

“Because we evolved in the natural world we are nature, but we’re the part of nature that forgets what it is,” says Chalquist. 

For him, we don’t spend enough time outdoors, and he takes it one step further, suggesting that our mental health is intertwined with the health of the planet—so if its health declines, our health declines.

Take a hike

Taking full advantage of the mental health benefits of nature doesn’t require you to spend hours in a forest communing with the trees—unless that’s your jam. If you’re ready to give nature therapy a try, Chalquist suggests starting small.

“Even simple introductions to nature make a huge impact,” he says. 

First, evaluate your schedule. Go through it hour by hour and take note of how much time you spend outside. Chalquist says that many people are often surprised by how little nature appears in their day-to-day experiences.

Then, make time to insert nature into your routine. Go outside to participate in activities like gardening or painting; exercise outdoors instead of in; go on walks or sit on a bench in the park. Just don’t scroll mindlessly through your phone as you do it. We’re used to being constantly stimulated and at first, it may be difficult to set distractions aside—but it pays off. Be intentional about what you’re doing and what’s going on around you.

“Just watch what nature does,” Chalquist recommends.

A good trick is to do what children do—imitate their sense of wonder and curiosity by studying the veins of a leaf or feeling the petals of a flower. It may sound strange, but wander around with a handful of fresh soil for 20 minutes and see if it affects your mood. Going to an animal sanctuary and interacting with a wider variety of animals than you’re used to is also a good idea. Research suggests that the more diverse the nature you’re in contact with is, the more health benefits you reap. 

And if you can’t go outside, bring more plants indoors to surround yourself with nature wherever you are.

[Related: Four plants that are scientifically proven to be therapeutic]

However you approach ecotherapy, the key to getting the most out of it is to be intentional. If you’re feeling tense, anxious, or stressed, check in with yourself before heading outdoors by rating your mood on a scale of one to ten. Then, after spending 20 minutes or so being present and observant of the sights, smells, and sounds around you, rate it again. Chalquist is willing to bet it will almost always be higher, which will serve as motivation to spend more time outside. 

If you want to go the extra mile, keep track of your mood in a journal and ask yourself if spending time outside is actually making you feel better. If the answer is “yes,” keep it up.

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You nearly jump out of your skin as a mountain biker speeds past you. A couple of minutes later, you practically trip over a dog as it bounds, off-leash, down the trail. And before you know it, you get to second base with a scratchy patch of bushes in an effort to let other hikers continue down the narrow trail. 

The solution is to practice proper trail etiquette. Following the unwritten rules of the trail can ensure proper civility, and allow adventurers new and old to enjoy their time in nature.

“It’s about being mindful. We’re all trying to enjoy this finite resource,” says Ben Lawhon of Leave No Trace, an organization that aims to help those heading outside to play make more responsible choices for themselves and the natural environments they’re in.

[Related: How to leave the great outdoors exactly how you found it]

On narrow trails, when you meet someone coming from the other direction or approaching from behind at a faster pace, one of you has to step aside and yield. Who does this depends on a few simple factors. If it’s another hiker and you’re on an incline, conventional wisdom says the person moving uphill has the right of way. If you’re the one headed downhill, then it’s up to you to step aside. 

But Lawhon says that’s not a hard and fast rule. It’s always worth it to offer to step aside, but the other person may want a break if they’re in the middle of a long climb or are moving slowly. If they prefer to take a breather, they’ll let you know.

Who has the right of way when you’re on a flat stretch of trail is less straightforward. If there’s only space for one person or if someone is hiking behind you at a faster pace, find a flat patch of gravel or dirt nearby and take the opportunity to move over and let them pass. Whether you think you have the right of way or not, yielding to another hiker is always appreciated. If they yield for you, make sure to say thanks.

When trails are wide enough for multiple people to walk side by side, you should plan to hike single-file when other hikers are passing by. This will offer a little extra room so your boots or backpacks don’t collide.

The second rank goes to pack animals like horses or mules, to which all other traffic should yield. Where you step off depends on the trail and the animals. The prevailing thought is that you shouldn’t stand uphill from a pack animal as they might not be able to see you and you could spook them as they get closer. But Lawhon recommends asking the lead rider where they recommend you stand. They know their animals best and what is least likely to provoke an unwanted reaction.

Cyclists, on the other hand, should always yield, so if you’re on two wheels, be prepared to use those brakes when passing hikers, horses, or just about anyone on the trail. In addition, it’s good trail etiquette to announce yourself at a distance when coming up behind or ahead of hikers so they aren’t surprised by your abrupt presence. Phrases like “Coming up behind” or “Passing on your left” are effective. You can also buy a bell (legally required in some areas) to signal your approach.

Finally, never blaze a new trail just to put some distance between you and others. Step aside, pause, and when those who have the right of way have passed, resume on the designated trail.

But if you have any doubts about whether or not your four-legged friend can go off-leash, it’s always better to play on the safe side. “Be a good advocate for dogs on trails,” Lawhon suggests. “The best way for you to support the dog-owner community is to put your dog on a leash.”

And of course, always pick up your pet’s waste. Yes, wild animals poop in the woods, and no one cleans up after them, but their diet involves only food that comes from the habitat in which they live, making it more natural. Plus, no one wants to smell or step in dog poop during a hike.

Everyone has their own reason to be outdoors–quiet solace or fun recreation–and it pays to be respectful of that. If you belong to one of the several communities that don’t feel safe in complete silence while in the backcountry, do what makes you feel comfortable, but consider turning down the volume or pushing pause when passing other hikers.

[Related: 17 minutes outside a day keeps the doctor away]

If you opt to use earbuds, make sure you leave one out or keep your music turned down low so you can still be aware of your surroundings—there may be others around you who may be trying to pass or wildlife coming up behind you.

However, you enjoy the outdoors, be considerate of those around you and the space where you’re recreating. If everyone agrees on how to behave, polite interactions on the trail are possible, and all involved can have a great time outside and protect the lands we love.

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As I huffed up the side of New Hampshire’s Mount Liberty in the fog, I couldn’t recall an ascent ever being so taxing on my muscles or my mind. It was the second summit of my first day backpacking the Pemigewasset Loop in the state’s White Mountains, and the 32-mile trail was giving me a solid thrashing. 

As an active runner, climber, hiker, and cyclist, I’m fit, but my legs were burning, my knees grinding, and my pack felt much heavier than it had during my last backpacking trip only two months prior. There was no going back, of course—my determination and stubbornness simply wouldn’t allow me to call off a hike just because I was tired—but I was exhausted physically and mentally knowing I had three whole days of this ahead of me.

That’s largely because I essentially hit the trail—a trail with eight peaks over 4,000 feet—straight “off the couch,” or with little to no specialized training for such an arduous adventure. In hindsight, all of my discomfort and mental anguish could have been avoided with just a little preparation and hard work.

So take it from me: train for a long hike. Because just as athletes don’t perform at the top of their game without hours of practice and training, hikers should not expect to set foot in the wild and excel without conditioning their bodies and minds. 

Why to train for a hike

For most people, training for a hike boils down to one simple thing: being able to complete a dream journey or effortful adventure with less pain, suffering, or huffing and puffing. 

Mitigating my discomfort would have been reason enough for me, but training before a strenuous outing is about more than gaining the ability to go farther faster with less pain; it’s also about minimizing risk.

“Conditioning prior to attempting a difficult or lengthy hike is very important for success and to help minimize injury,” says William Byrnes, director of the Applied Exercise Science Laboratory at the University of Colorado Boulder.

When to train for a hike

What your training actually looks like will depend on a lot of factors, including your baseline level of activity and fitness (Are you starting “off the couch” or are you fairly fit?), your goals and how extravagant they are (Are you hiking in a mountainous state park with your family or summiting Denali?), and what you want to accomplish (Do you want to set a speed record or just enjoy a tough hike without feeling like you’re dying?).

Whatever the case, Byrnes recommends starting slowly and building up intensity as your body adapts to new stimuli. Consider weight training: when lifting a 10-pound weight starts to feel less difficult, move up to a 12- or 15-pound weight. The same goes for aerobic exercises: gradually add miles or minutes as your ability increases. You probably won’t notice immediate improvements, but Byrnes says training adaptations will likely occur within two to four weeks of beginning a solid exercise program.

But that doesn’t mean you’ll necessarily be ready to hit the trail just yet. If you’ve never run a marathon, for example, a month of training won’t prepare you for one, Byrnes says. He suggests training until you know you can complete the trip you want to take.

In fact, depending on your goals, your preparation could take anywhere between six weeks and six months, according to Jason Antin, an instructor at the Colorado Mountain School in Boulder and a mountain performance coach at Uphill Athlete, which offers training plans and coaching to outdoor athletes. 

And he would know: he has decades of experience not just accomplishing impressive feats in the mountains himself, but helping others do the same. And while he says the ideal training scenario is a life of preparation, regular hikes in the mountains aren’t an option for everyone. In that case, Antin recommends at least a month of training, and six months if you’re aiming for an excursion of epic proportions.

How to train for a hike

When you’re ready, Antin suggests starting by assessing your aerobic capacity. That’s a measurement of your body’s oxygen consumption during physical activity and a reflection of its ability to continue performing strenuous activities for long periods of time—endurance, essentially. The more oxygen your lungs can pull in and push into your blood, the more of this critical gas will be pumped to your brain, heart, and other tissues and muscles where it can be used.

Now start the actual training, spending most of your time performing aerobic exercises such as running or fast hiking that keep your heart rate holding steady at just below your aerobic threshold. Depending on your starting aerobic threshold, the intensity of this initial training will vary, but your goal is to get your heart pumping. And don’t skip this, because there are no shortcuts when it comes to aerobic adaptation, Antin says.

He also suggests a simple weight training routine during the first one to eight weeks of aerobic training in order to build up a strength reserve. This will help give you the ability to execute many of the repetitive movements common in outdoor activities (like stepping up while wearing a heavy backpack).

After that, upgrade to more complex strength training motions that involve several parts of your body at the same time. Think deadlifts, cleans, and overhead squats. These will help you build strength while simultaneously improving the neuromuscular coordination of muscular contractions. “It’s a fancy way of saying: ‘see: do,’” Antin explains. “As an athlete of any caliber, you are training your body and mind to respond efficiently.”

If a month or two is all you have before your adventure, Antin suggests heading straight to the weight room. With such a time crunch, it’s important to focus on muscular endurance and exercises that burn leg and core muscles like squats and planks, he says.

Finally, if you’re gearing up for a specific event, concentrate on training for activity-specific conditions. For example, do calf raises to prepare for ice climbing—a task that can be taxing on those muscles.

Regardless of how much time you have, make sure you’re well-recovered before you actually set out: Taper your workout intensity between one and three weeks before you embark to ensure you are well-rested going into a big event.

“Your body and mind are incredibly powerful and so much can be achieved if provided enough prep time,” says Antin. “Most outdoor endeavors dwell heavily on mental capacity and the more time you spend in the activity, the more experienced and confident you will feel embarking on the goal objective.”

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If there’s one thing every fitness enthusiast, athlete, and lover of the outdoors has an overabundance of, it’s synthetic apparel. After all, materials like polyester, nylon, and acrylics simply excel at wicking moisture, dry out quickly, and can really take a beating.

Why should I care about microplastics?

As the name suggests, microplastics are small pieces of plastic or plastic fibers that are frequently invisible to the naked eye. As such, fighting to prevent their release is less sexy than advocating against plastic straws or bags—endeavours that are commonly accompanied by heart-wrenching images of turtles choked by trash. But microplastics are still an urgent threat to our environment, says marine biologist Alexis Jackson. And she would know: she has a Ph.D. in ecology and evolutionary biology and has extensively studied the plastics in our oceans as the ocean policy lead for the California chapter of the Nature Conservancy.

But unlike buying metal straws or collecting reusable shopping bags, the solution to this microscopic problem isn’t clear. For starters, microplastics are so, well, micro, that wastewater treatment plants usually can’t filter them out.

[Related: Reusable grocery bags aren’t as environmentally friendly as you might think]

When they slip through, they end up pretty much everywhere. They’ve even been detected in the arctic. And they’re more than just a nuisance: any animal that eats these minuscule plastic threads may end up with blocked digestive tracts, decreased energy, and less of an appetite, all of which can result in stunted growth and reduced reproductive abilities. Plus, microplastics have been shown to absorb harmful chemicals like heavy metals and pesticides, carrying those toxins into the bodies of plankton, fish, sea birds, and other wildlife.

From there, the dangerous chemicals can work their way up the food chain and show up in your seafood dinner, not to mention your tap water.

Unfortunately, we don’t yet have data on the potential long-term effects of microplastics on human health. But since we know they are harmful to animals (and plastic isn’t a recommended part of a healthy, balanced diet), Jackson points out that it’s safe to say we should probably avoid putting them in our bodies.

Tips for laundry day

When it’s time to wash your leggings, basketball shorts, or moisture-wicking tanks, there are a few things you can do to keep microplastics out of the environment.

Start by separating your clothing items—not by color, but by material. Wash rough or coarse clothes like jeans separately from softer items like polyester T-shirts and fuzzy fleece sweaters. This way, you reduce the friction caused by rougher materials crashing into more delicate ones for 40 minutes. Less friction means your clothes won’t wear out as fast and the fibers will be less prone to premature breakage.

Then, make sure you’re using cold water instead of hot. Heat weakens fibers and makes them more likely to break; cold water will help them last longer. Next, run a short cycle instead of a normal or long one, which will limit the opportunity for fiber breakdown. While you’re at it, reduce the speed of the spin cycle if you can—this will reduce friction even further. One study showed that together, these methods reduced microfiber shedding by 30 percent. 

While we’re on the subject of washer settings, avoid the delicate cycle. That may run contrary to your beliefs, but it uses more water than other washing modes to prevent friction—and a higher ratio of water to fabric actually increases fiber shedding.

[Related: Here’s why gym clothes smell so rank—and how to freshen them up]

Finally, skip the dryer altogether. We can’t emphasize this enough: heat can shorten the life of materials and make them more likely to break in the next load of laundry. Fortunately, synthetic clothing dries fast, so hang it outside or over your shower rod instead—you might even save money by not running your dryer so frequently.

Once your clothes are washed and dried, don’t go back to the washer for a while. Many items don’t need to be washed after every use, so put those shorts or that shirt back in the dresser for another wear or two if it doesn’t smell like wet dog after one use. If there’s just one dirty spot, wash it out by hand instead of starting a load.

There are also several tools you can use to reduce microfiber shedding. Guppyfriend makes a laundry bag specifically designed to capture broken fibers and microplastic waste, but also to prevent fiber breakdown in the first place by protecting clothing. Just place your synthetics inside, zip it shut, toss it in the washer, and pick out any and dispose of any microplastic lint that gets caught in the corners of the bag. Even standard laundry bags help reduce friction, so those are an option as well.

A separate lint filter that attaches to your washing machine’s discharge hose is another effective and endlessly reusable option, shown to reduce microplastics by up to 80 percent. But don’t spring for those laundry balls that are supposedly meant to catch microfibers in the wash: the beneficial results are comparatively minimal.

As for detergent, many popular brands contain plastic, including those handy pods, which break down into microplastic particles in the washing machine. But finding out which detergents are the culprits requires some digging. Learn how to find out if your detergent is really environmentally friendly before you restock, or consider making your own. Then take care of your synthetics, starting on laundry day.

The post The secret to longer-lasting clothes will also reduce plastic pollution appeared first on Popular Science.

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For years, national park visitation numbers have been on a steady incline as folks from all walks of life discover the mental and physical benefits of spending time outside. Unfortunately, more people means more congestion on trails, and crowds make peace and quiet in the woods nearly impossible to come by.

Crowding by the numbers

In fact, we may be loving them too much. National parks are usually stunningly wild destinations overflowing with sweeping vistas, diverse wildlife, and ample recreation opportunities. Adventurous travelers are catching wind. They aren’t, however, visiting all national parks equally. According to the National Park Service, 25 percent of all recreational visits in 2020 occurred in only six parks, which represent just 1.5 percent of all parks in the system.

Overall, visitation numbers jumped from slightly less than 279 million in 2011 to more than 327 million in 2019. The year 2020 saw an overall decrease in visitors, but 15 parks still flipped the script and set new visitation records. The most visited national park by far was Great Smoky Mountains at 12.1 million.

Managing those multitudes means the trails and campsites in some parks occasionally require reservations or close outright to curb the number of visitors. Many other parks struggle with overflowing vehicle lots, cars parked atop delicate roadside flora, and excessive litter.

Why crowding matters

Inconvenience of congested trails aside, the truth is that the more people there are in a given space, the more damaging the cumulative effect of their presence. That includes trail erosion, litter, cut-through trails made by people in search of shortcuts or new vistas, and even visitors endangering themselves and wildlife by getting too close. All of these actions can create eyesores, attract animals, pollute waterways, and even devastate whole ecosystems.

Then there are the less obvious ways visitors affect nature, like stacking rocks. Many do it as an exercise in serenity or a fun family activity, but these stacks, also known as cairns, are more harmful than helpful. For starters, rangers occasionally use cairns to mark paths on rocky trails, so extra stacks can lead hikers astray. But in some areas, moving and stacking rocks can actually endanger wildlife. The Smokies, home to the endangered hellbender salamander, are a perfect example: Hellbenders often lay their eggs under rocks, so when visitors move stones, it can jeopardize the salamanders’ entire population.

Other wildlife pay the price, too. In the Smokies, if an animal like an elk gets too comfortable around humans and there’s documented interaction between the species, the animal may have to be euthanized. Additionally, food, including orange peels and trail mix, should always be properly discarded for the health of animals; feeding wildlife by accident or on purpose can make them too dependent on or too willing to approach humans.

And Sullivan has seen an uptick in the frequency of all of this since the pandemic began, as an influx of people new to the outdoors (and unfamiliar with outdoor etiquette) are swapping indoor activities for fresh air and natural social distancing.

For starters, go to parks and public lands during the week instead of on weekends. “Fewer people on the trail means less impact to natural areas,” he says.

“When you have fewer people on the trail, you have fewer people going off the trail to yield to other hikers,” Sullivan explains, adding that this seemingly polite action can cause trail erosion and trampled plants. “If the demand is spread out, hopefully the impact is spread out as well.”

Take time to learn about the destination before visiting, too. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, this step may be more important than ever before. Some locations now require reservations or have timed-entry systems, and some don’t have open or stocked restroom facilities. Other locations limit parking daily, Lawhon explains. “The more you know before you leave home, the better experience you’ll have and the easier your trip will be on the environment,” he adds.

Finally, adhere to the outdoorists’ motto: leave it better than you found it. That means come prepared to pick up a piece of trash or two during your outing. Or go all-out: bring a trash bag and gloves, collect litter as you explore, snap a photo, share it to social media with #TrashTag, and then dispose of the garbage properly once you’re back in civilization.

“There are more and more of us trying to enjoy a finite amount of space,” says Lawhon. “Given that reality, it falls on everyone to minimize their impacts.”

And don’t forget to have fun, Sullivan says. “Get out there and spread the love a little bit.”

The post How to beat the crowds and enjoy the best hiking trails in peace appeared first on Popular Science.

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Through archeology, food writer and researcher Farrell Monaco wants to revive our primal relationship with bread. As an experimental archaeologist, the founder of the award-winning blog tavolamediterranea.com has spent years studying Panis Quadratus, the carbonized loaves excavated from an oven in Pompeii, Italy. 

Now, she’s ready to reveal her findings and her own version of the recreated recipe, which she based on her research on this bread that dates back to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. 

Dust off your starter—it’s time to bake.

For starters, there’s the shape of the bread—a round piece that appears to have been imprinted so diners could easily break it into eight triangular sections. She believes this was meant to help the portioning of the bread in a time when serrated knives for this purpose weren’t widely available. 

[Related: Burnt bread shows that our ancestors were baking 4,000 years before agriculture]

Panis Quadratus also showed evidence of a band wrapped around the outside of each of the loaves. Most experts still don’t know for certain what ancient bakers used it for, but Monaco believes it likely served two purposes: keeping the pieces from spreading during baking in commercial ovens where space was at a premium, and making it easier for porters or bread hawkers to loop loaves onto poles and carry them around town.

As for the composition of the bread, it was likely made of common wheat and not spelt, as many historians postulate. Monaco posits the bread may even have contained parsley, fennel, poppy seeds, and Roman Coriander in some markets, a testament to the Romans’ sophisticated style of bread-making and adventurous flavor combinations.

Several forthcoming publications to be released starting this winter will fully reveal these findings, including a chapter by Monaco in The Bloomsbury Handbook of Experimental Approaches to Roman Archaeology. Fortunately, you don’t have to wait to make this Pompeiian bread yourself.

Alternatively, create a sponge by mixing 65 grams of flour and the same amount of water with a teaspoon of baker’s yeast. Sponges work just as well as starters, and you can make exactly the amount you need using store-bought baker’s yeast. After an hour or two, once the sponge has risen and tripled its size, add it to the recipe as a starter. 

2. Parch the git seeds. Pour the seeds onto a dry, hot skillet on high heat for a few minutes until the seeds begin to pop. Finish by taking them off the heat.

3. Dissolve your starter or sponge in tepid water.

4. In a bowl, mix your dry ingredients. Make sure the git seeds have cooled down and fold them into the flour.

5. Combine the wet and dry ingredients and knead. Adjust your water and flour content to achieve a firm dough. Your goal is to get a ball that doesn’t stick nor leaves flour behind. 

Note: The texture of the flour you use (coarse or fine) may affect the level of hydration of your dough. To solve this, sprinkle a couple of drops of water or a light layer of flour accordingly. 

6. Let the dough rest for 2 hours. Leave it in a bowl in a warm, humid place and cover it with a clean, damp cotton tea towel to keep the surface moist.

7. Knead the dough again for 5 to 10 minutes. Sprinkle the salt on the dough as you knead and fold. 

8. Let the dough rest for 2 hours. Follow the same instructions as in step 6.

8. Shape the loaf. Rotate and tuck the sides and seams under and towards the center of the dough to make a round cake.  

Pro tip: You can use a bench knife or the side of your hand to control the underside of the dough and shape it as you work it. 

9. Preheat your oven to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. 

10. Let the dough rest and rise again for another hour. This time, place your uncooked loaf on a surface dusted with flour or on the sheet that you will bake it on. Cover the dough with a damp tea towel and leave it in a warm place. Warmth (like that from near a preheating oven) promotes yeast growth. 

Note: The dough should be roughly 1.3 kilograms or 2.8 pounds, the equivalent of 4 Roman libre. This is enough to make a modern-age Panis Quadratus that matches several of the archaeological specimens found at Pompeii and Herculaneum.

10. Dust the top of the loaf with flour.

11. Decorate your loaf. Panis Quadratus is famous for its characteristic beltline. Create it by tying twine snuggly around the outside edge of the loaf. Next, mark the eight wedges on the top side of the bread. You can do it by pressing twine, a reed, a skewer, or a chopstick. These are not incisions: Do not use a knife as cutting the loaf causes splitting and further expansion during baking.

Finally, create the puncture at the top of the loaf. Use a sharp knife or the tip of your reed and press it into the center of the loaf straight down to the bottom. If using a reed, pivot it back and forth a few times to create a small slit in the dough.

12. Bake for 60 minutes at 400 degrees.

13. Let the loaves rest for about 2 to 3 hours or until completely cool. Serve with sides or condiments that the Romans commonly used, such as salted broth, lentils, stews, milk, olive oil, red wine mixed with water (“You read that right—drinking wine straight in ancient Rome was in very poor form!” says Monaco), ricotta, aged or smoked cheese, figs or dates.

She’s not new to this either. Monaco’s specialty is studying ancient food—particularly Greek and Roman—and recreating recipes and narratives to help us better understand not only the culture and civilization of the period but our shared history. That’s the experimental part of experimental archaeology. 

[Related: What archaeologists got wrong about female statues, goddesses, and fertility]

“Looking at something in a glass cabinet doesn’t tell you much, but when you’re deconstructing and reconstructing an object, you are able to step into the shoes of the creator and understand the object and its purpose much better,” she says.

But it’s not just about the bread. Telling the stories of the people behind it—largely women and slaves, who tend to be invisible in historical records and modern scholarship—are just as important to Monaco. There’s a human connection in every loaf that she wants to bring into focus.

The post Eat like an ancient Roman by recreating bread from Pompeii appeared first on Popular Science.

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Many attempt lengthy thru-hikes that take them miles and miles on typically one-way routes through cities, states, and even entire countries. But not all make it, as the heavy pack they carry quickly becomes too much of a burden. The key, then, for longer, more enjoyable treks is ultralight packing.

But this is easier said than done, and if you do some research online, you’ll find the subject is often rife with misconceptions. If you’re looking to shed some pack weight before your next adventure, here’s how to do it right.

There are plenty of tips ultralight hikers will offer, but some are downright ridiculous, Brown says. A popular example is the suggestion to cut your toothbrush in half to save a few grams. But this won’t make much of a difference, especially when you’re ignoring heavier, bulkier items in your pack. 

If you really want to cut weight, focus on the big four—your tent, sleep system (i.e. your sleeping bag and pad), shoes, and backpack. 

Select ultralight versions of every item to save the most weight. Think lightweight sleeping pads and bags, and frameless packs, which can be several pounds lighter than their heftier counterparts. After all, a three-pound tent will cancel out any weight savings you’ll scrounge by sawing the handle off your toothbrush.

[Related: How to safely turn your old toothbrush into a household cleaning tool]

Also, keep in mind that ultra-luxe gear tends to be heavier and bulky. Brown says she once saw a backpacker ditch full-size pillows and twin-sized sleeping pads with integrated foot pumps only after a few days on the trail. You don’t want to have to do that. 

Next, consider what you put on your feet. According to Brown, many people start a long hike with heavy-duty hiking boots, but only a few days into the trip, most are ready to swap them for lightweight trail runners like those from Altra or Hoka. It might not seem like it to more inexperienced hikers, but after a few days on rugged terrain, heavy footwear starts to feel like they are slowing you down.

Finally, move on to swap smaller gear for lighter alternatives. Trade in your Nalgene for a disposable SmartWater bottle or a collapsible water bottle. Consider going stove-less in warmer months to save yourself from carrying fuel canisters. Instead, pack ready-to-eat meals like tortillas or tuna, and foods you can cold-soak, like noodles or couscous. Just a few smart swaps like these could save you ounces or pounds instead of grams.

“Go out for three days with what you think you need,” she says. “Then, for your actual thru-hike, leave behind anything you didn’t use.”

The same basic principle applies when you’re out on the trail—if there’s any piece of gear you didn’t use in your first three days, Brown recommends ditching it at the next hiker box or town.

The next step is to keep pairing down your weight by eliminating duplicates. You probably don’t need more than one cup or spoon, and when it comes to clothes, Brown recommends bringing just one of everything—t-shirt, shorts, pants, mid-layer, jacket, and hat. Don’t worry about getting them dirty or stinky: it’s going to happen no matter how many times you change, and you can always wash clothing and gear at camp or in towns you may pass through on your way.

Still, Brown still finds it useful to pack a simple, compact outfit for days in town. She prefers an ultralight sundress as it’s just one garment. This extra outfit will give you something to change into when dining out, shopping, or doing laundry.

Don’t worry about being underprepared. On many thru-hiking trails, there is often relatively easy and semi-frequent access to towns with outfitters or even hiker boxes of left-behind items at hostels and stations. If there’s anything you decide you can’t live without, you can find it there or have friends and family ship you gear to depots along the way.

Choose the right gear for the specific hike you’re doing, so as to avoid having to ditch much of it along the trail. Reflective umbrellas, for example, can be hugely useful on desert sections of the Pacific Crest Trail to keep the sun off your shoulders. But if you’re doing the Appalachian Trail, your umbrella won’t fare as well as trails are narrow and covered by canopy, making that particular piece of gear little more than dead weight.

[Related: Save money and protect the environment by repurposing your old outdoor gear]

Another example is going for a lightweight tarp or tent fly instead of a fully-enclosed structure. It can be a great swap if you want to go really ultralight, but in buggy regions prone to mosquitoes, this may only result in a lot of sleepless nights.

Ultralight packing is all about bringing the right gear—and you don’t have to splurge if you don’t want to. A tip from Brown: “Don’t invest a lot of money in an expensive rain jacket when Frog Togs are light, cheap, and easily replaceable.” Your best bet is to shop smart and talk to people who have more experience on the trail in question before you go off on your own adventure.

“If it improves your hike, bring it,” Brown says. “It comes down to finding what you need as an individual.”

That goes for major gear like sleep systems but also items like books or mementos. For example, while some hikers are willing to rough it out on hard surfaces to cut the weight of a sleeping pad, Brown says she’s not willing to make the sacrifice. That’s why a sleeping pad is worth the weight to her. Likewise, while a frameless pack may be lighter, they are often not as comfortable, so consider whether the trade-off is worth it for you.

Food is another item that’s worth the weight—at least for Brown. A warm meal, hot coffee, and your favorite snacks or healthy foods can make carrying heavy loads for long distances much more enjoyable.

Ultralight packing doesn’t come naturally to most and doing it well doesn’t happen overnight. Experience will tell you what gear is indispensable, what isn’t, and what you actually need to be comfortable and enjoy your time outdoors. 

The post Ultralight backpacking hacks no one tells you about appeared first on Popular Science.

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After the sun goes down, William Hayes begins his hunt. Armed with nothing more than a blacklight, he heads out into the southern California desert in search of biological treasure. The ultraviolet light doesn’t illuminate the path well at all, but it will help him spot his stinging, pinching, eight-legged prey: scorpions.

The Loma Linda University biology professor sweeps his blacklight a few feet ahead of him and spots one scurrying out from under a rock, its body glowing fluorescent green under the UV rays. Now, it’s simply a matter of identifying the species, noting behavioral data, and perhaps taking a few live specimens scooped into portable containers back to the lab where he will collect and study their venom.

He’s been stung many times in the process, sometimes deliberately, sometimes not, so it’s safe to say he has an intimate knowledge of these creatures he finds so fascinating. And what he knows will help you when you venture into scorpion territory.

Scorpion basics

Most scorpions are between 2 and 3 inches long, and all are carnivores, meaning they munch on insects, small lizards, and even snakes. They generally capture their dinner using their pedipalps (which you may know as pincers), saving their venomous tail stinger for paralyzing larger prey. 

Their look is worse than their sting

He knows this firsthand, as he will occasionally provoke defensive responses with his own fingers instead of the dead mice or membrane-covered beakers he and his students use to collect venom. When they force scorpions to sting, they’re attempting to determine a slew of factors: whether scorpions give dry bites (a sting without venom) or always wet ones (a sting with venom), whether sexual differences exist in defensive stings, how much venom comes with each sting, and whether scorpions can control how much they inject (they can).

But don’t worry about Hayes and his fingers; of some 2,500 scorpion species worldwide, only 30 or so have strong enough venom to endanger most humans, and only one with potentially deadly venom lives in the US: the Arizona bark scorpion.

But just because a sting isn’t likely to severely injure you doesn’t mean you should ignore scorpions entirely.

How to avoid encountering scorpions

Fortunately, avoiding these little arachnids isn’t hard to do. Scorpions use tiny hairs on their legs and body to sense vibrations and will likely skitter into a safe hiding place before you even see them.

“They don’t want anything to do with us. They’re reclusive and they want to be left alone,” says Hayes. So if you spot one during the day, consider yourself lucky. At night, carry a blacklight to spot the creatures more easily—their brown or black bodies blend in with the landscape under normal flashlights.

Of course, hidden scorpions can still sting if you accidentally enter their refuge, so watch where you put your uncovered hands and feet when in their typically dry, rocky natural habitats, and be cautious when reaching into crevices or under rocks. They can even reside on cliffs or in trees, so climbers should proceed with caution.

What to do if you’re stung by a scorpion

Don’t panic. While scorpion stings can be painful, most have no lasting consequences and the pain is likely to dissipate within 10 minutes, Hayes says. 

They can cause bruising and swelling, however, and heat around the injection site. In a small percentage of people who are allergic, venom can cause anaphylactic or anaphylactoid reactions. If you find out you are allergic, carry treatment like an epinephrine auto-injector with you in scorpion country. Good news: If you’re allergic to bees, you’re not automatically allergic to scorpion venom.

Allergic or not, try to avoid getting stung by the same scorpion more than once in succession, because additional stings can be more serious. The first venom that emerges is often clear and has lots of potassium ions that cause pain, but the venom in subsequent stings is more likely to be milky in color, with a greater concentration of proteins that are likely more toxic than the initial sting, Hayes says.

If you’re only stung once by most scorpions in the US, you’ll probably be just fine in a few minutes. But keep an eye out for signs and symptoms including difficulty breathing, intense muscle spasms, intense pain that doesn’t go away, nausea, or vomiting, especially in small children. If you or a companion experience any of those or have been stung more than once, head to a hospital to see if you need anti-venom, though this is only available for Arizona bark scorpion stings.

That species, which can be identified by its dark yellow-tan color, long, slender tail and narrow pincers, can be found in Arizona, southwest New Mexico, southern Nevada, and eastern California. And if it stings you, Hayes recommends visiting a hospital if symptoms “become at all alarming.”

Even scorpions have their place

But scorpions aren’t just grumpy recluses that will lash out if you get too close. Scientists have found that scorpion venom can be used to treat brain tumors in humans and to block signals from cancer cells to prevent them from growing. Researchers have also discovered that the pallid bat and grasshopper mouse are immune to scorpion venom and are studying those species to see if they might provide the key to pain relief for humans.

And as terrifying as scorpions are often portrayed on TV and in movies, there’s simply no data to back up widespread fear: as of 2018, there had been fewer than four deaths in the past 11 years in the US (there are, of course, more fatalities in countries with scorpions that have more toxic venom). So don’t run away in fear the next time you see one of these arthropods in the wild. “They’re not out to get us and they are important components to the ecosystem,” Hayes says. Just keep your distance and let them live their lives.

The post Everything you need to know about scorpion stings and venom appeared first on Popular Science.

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This story has been updated. It was originally published on January 11, 2019.

By making just a few swaps, you can fight light pollution on three fronts. We can show you how to protect your personal health, darken the environment around you, and petition the nearest city to make changes for the better.

When you keep bright room lights shining in the hours before bed, they can suppress melatonin, a natural hormone that, among other things, helps regulate daily wake-sleep cycles. Without it, your body doesn’t get the signal that it’s time to unwind, your brain stays more alert, and you often get less sleep—which increases your risk of depression, diabetes, and heart problems. And that’s not all this hormone does. According to a study in The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, melatonin disruption could raise blood pressure and possibly even increase your risk of type 2 diabetes.

[Related: How to take the best naps]

The worst offenders in our homes are LEDs. More cost-effective and energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs, they also require fewer watts to produce the same amount of light. And compared to the glow from traditional bulbs, the waves LEDs emit fall in a bluer part of the color spectrum. However, research suggests that this type of light makes us more alert and cognitively active. As a result, LED lights may disrupt our circadian rhythms more than incandescent bulbs and their rosier rays.

In fact, any blue-tinged light—including that emanating from digital screens like those of cell phones, computers, and TV—delays the onset of melatonin, reducing our sleep and harming our health. Still, we just can’t quit them: The National Sleep Foundation found that 90 percent of Americans use some sort of electronic device in the hour before bed at least three nights a week. Those who texted or used their computers in that time reported that they were less likely to get a good night’s sleep and more likely to wake up feeling groggy the next day.

Luckily, indoor blue light is a problem that’s relatively easy to fix. If avoiding screens for an hour or two before bedtime is out of the question, change the color of those screens. Apple devices, for example, offer a Night Shift setting that automatically changes the color temperature of their emitted light when the sun goes down (or at any other time you choose). Androids have a similar option called Night Light. If your device doesn’t have a built-in setting, you can find an app to do it for you.

As for the bulbs that illuminate your evening activities, swap bright white LEDs—in both indoor and outdoor fixtures—for versions with warmer color temperatures. And if you can’t eliminate all the blue light, try on a pair of special glasses that filter out blue light.

Studies suggest that human lights disrupt mating and migration patterns in many animal species. For example, they distract migratory birds, drawing them off course. On beaches, they contribute to the declining sea turtle population, disorienting hatchlings and drawing them toward city streets—and nocturnal predators—rather than the ocean. Plant life suffers because moths and other beneficial insects wander toward artificial light and die rather than pollinating the greens that rely on them. Even humans might mourn: As bright lights render the stars invisible, amateur and professional astronomers have lost their view of the cosmos.

By changing your outdoor light setup, you can help wildlife thrive—and earn the thanks of any neighboring star gazers. Start by switching off outdoor lights. If you’re worried about safety, some studies suggest that outdoor lighting may have no effect at deterring crime, and that criminal activity may actually increase in better-lit areas. If that doesn’t convince you, install a motion sensor. That way, lights will only switch on when something moves nearby.

Replace those types of fixtures with more focused lighting, which you can find at your local home improvement stores or online. Some options even have a dark sky-friendly seal right on the box. Even without this label, you can still see whether a potential purchase will do the job: Look for directional or shielded fixtures that point light downward, so the bulb is only visible from directly underneath.

Flagstaff led the charge in 1958, when the city passed a lighting ordinance banning sweeping searchlights. In 1972, Tucson required outdoor lighting to have shielding that directs it downward. Flagstaff did the same in 1973. Then in 1986, Tucson updated their ordinance by banning mercury vapor lights and bottom-mounted billboard floodlights. Next, Flagstaff required all roadways and parking lots to switch to low-pressure sodium lights. In 1998, Coconino County passed the world’s first code to restrict both the type of light permitted in the county and the amount of light per acre. Starting in 2016, Tucson replaced its streetlights with LEDs that emit less blue-spectrum light than most, all of them shielded and most of them with wireless connections that make them remotely dimmable.

The result? Flagstaff has one of the most accessible dark skies in the US—you can see the Milky Way from downtown. Tucson has decreased its overall sky glow by 7 percent and the total amount of light by 70 percent.

How can you bring similar changes to your city? “It’s not a technically difficult problem,” says Christian Luginbuhl, a retired astronomer at the US Naval Observatory in Flagstaff. He’s been leading the charge for that city’s dark sky-friendly ordinances since the 80s. “The reason it doesn’t get solved in so many places is that we need more cultural awareness and initiatives. The technical solutions are just a link in the chain,” he says.

According to Luginbuhl, the key factor is getting people passionate about the value of clear night skies, and how light pollution takes them away. To that end, the Flagstaff Dark Skies Coalition hosts annual star parties in the fall and year-round events—art exhibits, lectures, and musical performances—that promote cultural connection to the night sky.

You can start the journey to dim your city by creating or joining a dark-sky advocacy organization like IDA (which might already have a local chapter near you). Partner with environmental, astronomy, and outdoor-advocacy groups to spread the word about the importance of maintaining dark skies. IDA even has resources to help you get started.

Once community support and commitment exist, talk to jurisdictional authorities like commissioners, zoning boards and elected officials, explaining what people can gain by reducing light pollution. Then ask these authorities to consider city-wide ordinances and positive changes, similar to the ones Flagstaff and Tucson adopted.

• Implement lighting zones, so they can have different levels of brightness in, say, more rural versus more urban areas.
• Ban upward-facing billboard floodlights.
• Limit the amount of light (lumens) that non-residential properties can use.
• Require streetlights and parking lights to have shielded fixtures that point down, focusing the rays away from the sky.

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When you or a companion starts to struggle under the hot sun, you might suspect some kind of temperature-related sickness. But is it heat exhaustion or much more serious heat stroke? The difference could be a matter of life and death, so it’s critical to know how to tell them apart.

Each type of heat illness occurs when the human body can’t cool itself efficiently via thermoregulation. A root cause: dehydration. When our bodies are short on fluids, either because we haven’t had enough water or we’ve been sweating profusely, that perspiration—our built-in cooling system—dries up. That leaves us without an effective way to avoid overheating.

Heat sickness of any kind can happen whenever the mercury rises, but is most common in hot and humid areas of the world. How hot depends on many factors, but if the relative heat index (the combination of temperature and humidity) is higher than 91 degrees Fahrenheit, the risk increases.

How to tell the difference between heat exhaustion and heat stroke

Think of heat exhaustion as being physically overwhelmed by rising thermometer readings. If your body can’t manage the stress of increasing heat, it will call for help, usually via symptoms such as muscle cramps, general fatigue or weakness, heavy sweating, a fast but weakened heart rate, nausea, and dizziness.

Heat stroke, on the other hand, can be life-threatening and is frequently related to overexertion (though it can also affect young children, older adults, and other people whose bodies regulate temperature inefficiently in chronically hot environments). Think of a trail runner attempting to run 5 miles in 30 minutes on a humid, 90-degree day. Because she is pushing herself so hard, heat stroke hits out of nowhere, stopping her in her tracks.

Her pulse will likely be fast and strong; her skin red, dry, and hot to the touch; she’ll have a throbbing headache; and her body temperature will rise to around 104 degrees. Contrary to popular belief, though, she won’t necessarily stop sweating. Take this as a warning: don’t rely on lack of perspiration as your go-to heat stroke indicator.

[Related: Like a boiling frog, humans quickly normalize extreme temperatures]

Unlike heat exhaustion, heat stroke is more than physical—it also affects the brain. Mental issues such as confusion and loss of consciousness are serious and life-threatening symptoms.

Even worse: You can get heat stroke without any warning signs. “It can come on very quickly,” says Tod Schimelpfenig, wilderness medicine curriculum director at the National Outdoor Leadership School.

How to treat heat exhaustion and heat stroke

Once you’ve identified the type of heat illness, you’ll know how to fix it.

Both treatment regimes involve cooling off, but speed is critical when you’re dealing with heat stroke—it’s a true medical emergency. You’ll want to get the affected person’s temperature down as quickly as possible. If you’re alone, especially in the wild, be sure to call for help as soon as you think you might be in trouble. Once your mental status erodes, your chances of finding aid and making it back to civilization on your own are slim.

If another person has fallen victim, however, you should immerse them in the coldest water you can find. If there isn’t any, mimic the effect by soaking their clothing and hair with drinking water and laying them in a cool, shady place. Fan the patient, continue dousing them with water, and call for help. It’s unlikely they will be able to move on their own, so rescuers will have to come to you.

Speed is important because if their body temperature stays sky-high for too long, it could damage their central nervous system, impair brain function, and even cause organ failure. At temperatures above 104, cell proteins change shape and fall apart, Schimelpfenig says. Then, membranes around those cells start breaking down. So does the gut wall, which can become infected and septic as bacteria and toxins begin moving across it. Even brain cells may begin to denature.

[Related: How to find drinkable water in the wild]

Heat exhaustion, on the other hand, is easier to handle on your own. Once you’ve ruled out heat stroke, you’ve got to figure out why you’re suffering. Chances are, your body is stressed by heat and unable to regulate it, so you’ll have to eliminate that stress, Schimelpfenig says. 

Stop all activity, move to the shade, sit in a cool stream, or lie down out of the sun, and hydrate yourself with water and electrolytes. Then wait. “Don’t be impatient,” Schimelpfenig adds. It might take longer than you expect to cool down, so be prepared to rest for up to an hour.

When you think you’re feeling OK, make sure. Sit up or stand up, take a few steps, and go to the bathroom to ensure you’re not still dehydrated (dark, stinky urine is a sign that you are). If you’re not dizzy or nauseous and your heart rate feels normal, it’s probably safe to move on. But take care not to overexert yourself again and keep drinking plenty of water.

As for whether heat exhaustion can lead to heat stroke, Schimelpfenig says that’s a matter of some debate in the medical community. While exhaustion can lead to stroke if it’s ignored, they more often occur separately.

But it’s still possible, so you should address any symptoms of heat exhaustion right away to keep it from getting worse.

How to prevent heat illness

Fortunately, both types of heat sickness are preventable. Reducing your risk starts with preparation: wear a wide-brimmed hat and thin, loose-fitting, long-sleeved clothing to keep the sun from burning your skin, and complement your ample personal water supply with electrolytes like Gatorade or powdered drink mixes to replenish the salt your body will lose through sweat.

Keep out of the sun whenever you can, rest in shade if it’s available, and consider being active during cooler hours of the day instead of mid-afternoon. Don’t forget to factor in humidity: high humidity can make it feel much hotter than the thermometer says.

[Related: Water bottles for staying hydrated]

If you can, give yourself a chance to acclimatize to warm temps before participating in intense outdoor activity, especially if you’re not used to them. A backpacker from Minnesota, for example, may succumb to heat illness more easily when hiking in Texas than someone from Arizona. Our bodies get used to new climates in about 10-14 days, Schimelpfenig says. Once you’re accustomed to a warm climate, your body will produce less-salty sweat, meaning it retains more precious electrolytes to help keep you hydrated.

It’s also important to consider other risks. As we’ve mentioned, children under 4 years old and adults over 65 are more susceptible to heat illness because their bodies don’t regulate temperature efficiently. Having more body fat also puts you at higher risk because it retains more heat, making cooling down more difficult. What you are wearing (thick, heavy clothing can exacerbate heat illness), overexertion, even recent alcohol consumption may play a part in whether your body can properly regulate its internal temperature. Some good news, though: if you have suffered from heat exhaustion before, you’re not automatically more susceptible to it.

So before you head outdoors for warm-weather recreation or any other activity this summer, learn the warning signs and symptoms of heat illness, know how to treat heat stroke and heat exhaustion and when to call for help, and always be prepared with the right clothing, plenty of water, and electrolytes. Because as Schimelpfenig puts it, “These are leadership problems before they are medical problems. Most of this can be prevented if you just go outdoors prepared.”

The post Know the difference between heat stroke and heat exhaustion. One can kill you quickly. appeared first on Popular Science.

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Many a coffee connoisseur has wandered into a cafe or local coffee shop, watched those little brown beans tumble and toast, and thought, “I could do that.” And since many shops sell raw, green coffee beans right off the shelf, it’s easy for temptation to triumph.

The tools you’ll need to roast your own coffee

First, get yourself some green coffee beans, which are often available from specialty coffee retailers or local roasters.

Then, collect the necessary tools: one or two colanders or baking sheets, and a roasting device. According to Giuliano, your roasting device can be simple or extravagant. “One can roast coffee in a wok or a slightly modified popcorn popper, but there are also specific and very good home-roasting appliances designed especially for the purpose,” he explains.

[Related: Save money by making better coffee at home]

But in most home-roasters’ opinions, myself included, the easiest option without investing a few hundred dollars in a purpose-built device is to use the humble hot air popcorn popper, which isn’t unlike the professional models that Wisconsin’s Door County Coffee & Tea founder and co-owner Vicki Wilson uses to roast 5,000 pounds of coffee beans each week. Both tumble the beans on hot, high-velocity air, toasting them as they fly around the machine.

Heat the beans, agitating them constantly (a hot air popper does this for you), for three to five minutes, until you hear the beans start to make an audible pop or crack. This is called the “first crack” and it signifies the beginning of the roasting process. You can stop roasting as soon as you hear this sound if you prefer a light roast or keep going if you want a medium or dark roast. 

You should also call upon your senses to assess the beans’ progress. “A roaster may use their senses of sight, smell, and hearing to give them clues as to what exactly is happening in the roaster at any given moment,” explains Giuliano.

While audible cracks may be the main signifiers of how far along you are in the process, aromas also chart progress: acidic and flowery compounds in light roasts give way to sweet and nutty flavors in medium roasts and bittersweet chocolate notes in darker roasts, according to Giuliano. So don’t just listen; smell.

There’s color to consider, too. Keep an eye on the darkening shade of the beans to gauge how far along they are in the roasting process. If you buy and consume coffee beans regularly, you probably have a pretty good idea what color they should be, but keep in mind that they will continue to darken as they cool, so stop roasting a shade or two short. Then experiment with timing to see exactly how long it takes to achieve the roast you prefer.

[Related: For better coffee, start with fewer beans]

A few minutes after the first crack, the beans produce an audible second crack, which signifies that you’ve attained a dark roast. Within 30 seconds after that sound (or whenever you stopped at your preferred roast), move the beans to a metal strainer or parchment-lined tray to cool. “You want to quickly cool them to stop the roasting process or the beans will continue to burn,” instructs Wilson. You can speed up the process by transferring the beans back and forth from one strainer or tray to another, which allows more cool air to lower their temperature.

Let the beans cool for at least 12 hours in a garage or patio, or in a sink where the chaff won’t create a mess all over your kitchen floor. Then, store them in an air-tight container for freshness.

What happens when you roast coffee beans

While the technique may seem straightforward, there’s more going on during home roasting than meets the eye. There’s a chemical process taking place at the molecular level that transforms more than 800 compounds in the beans from flavorless and raw into aromatic and delicious.

Here’s what’s happening, according to Giuliano: First, as you heat the beans, the tiny reserves of water they hold evaporates, reducing the mass of the beans by around 11 percent. After about three to five minutes, when the last bit of water escapes, it turns to steam and causes the coffee beans to pop and crack.

A few minutes later, the second pop or crack is the result of carbon dioxide created during the roasting process. The beans will continue to release this carbon dioxide for hours, even days after roasting is complete.

And it’s all because of heat. Giuliano says, “The heat causes a variety of chemical reactions, including pyrolysis—a process of temperature-induced decomposition of coffee material—and Maillard reactions wherein sugars and proteins turn deep brown.” This is similar to what’s happening when foods like steak and toast brown and develop rich flavors.

Every type of coffee has a unique chemical reaction, but Giuliano says a skilled roaster knows how to coax a roast along and, more importantly, when to stop to get exactly the flavors they are looking for. It’s a skill that only comes with practice.

And keep in mind that timing is as much an issue after roasting as during. It may be tempting to grind your beans right away, but that won’t yield the best flavor. So wait at least 24 hours before using your beans to make a cup.

[Related: Does coffee make you poop?]

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A fin cutting through the surface of the water, black eyes and white teeth gleaming beneath the surface, a sleek, smooth body gliding silently beneath the waves. It’s the stuff of beach-goers’ nightmares.

Every once in a while, a beach you want to swim at may be closed due to increased shark activity. But the truth is, encounters with these regal creatures of the deep are extremely rare—more so, in fact, than getting struck by lightning or succumbing to insect stings.

But if you spend a significant amount of time in shark territory (i.e. the ocean), it doesn’t hurt to be informed before you strap on your flippers. That way if you do spot one of the oversized fishes, you’ll know exactly what to do to limit the damage.

Shark encounters are rare

For starters, any type of shark encounter is rare, but fatal events especially so. Only about five people are killed by sharks worldwide every year, so there’s just a 1 in 3,700,000 chance you’ll be killed by a shark in your lifetime. That means you have a greater chance of dying due to a fall or rip currents than a shark bite.

[Related: How to avoid an alligator encounter]

“There’s a whole a list of things that are more likely to kill you than sharks,” says Kristine Stump, marine biologist and co-founder of Field Lab Consulting, which provides collaborative support services for marine research. “My favorite one is that you’re more likely to be bitten by a New Yorker than a shark.”

And Stump would know. She works day-in and -out researching, interacting with, and educating others about the creatures. And even she has only been bitten once—a minor nip when she was handling a small lemon shark years ago.

Even the risk of non-fatal bites is low: There were 57 unprovoked shark bites worldwide in 2020. The US saw the greatest number of those encounters (33) with Florida, not surprisingly due to its miles of beaches and busy migration routes, topping the list of states with reported incidents (16). The largest number of global encounters—again, not surprisingly—involved surfers (61 percent or about 34 people), followed by swimmers (26 percent or about 15 people), and finally snorkelers and scuba divers (only 4 percent or 2 people in each category).

As for which species should be treated with the most caution, great whites, striped tiger sharks, and bull sharks have logged the most unprovoked attacks on humans.

Why sharks strike

When sharks do end up biting someone, it’s not because they’re big, bad carnivores that want to snack on your flesh. “It’s mistaken identity. Absolutely no species of shark includes human in their diet,” Stump says. 

Simply put, sharks mistake people for other forms of prey like fish or seals. Most encounters involve bite-and-release situations, which occur because inquisitive sharks often perform a test chomp to see if an object is palatable. (They have a high concentration of nerve receptors in their teeth.)  If not, they spit it out and move on their way. They certainly don’t want to eat you, especially since most sharks aren’t much bigger than the average person. “Animals don’t usually attack things that are the same size as them from a self-preservation standpoint,” Stump explains.

In fact, sharks prefer to keep their distance. Many swimmers, surfers and beach goers don’t even realize when they’re in the area. Stump recalls aerial videos from last year showing kayakers paddling in the ocean alongside a handful of sharks; the people make it to shore without realizing that they were a few paddle lengths away from the animals. 

That’s because sharks are very perceptive. They have the same five senses as humans—up to two-thirds of the weight of their brains is dedicated to smell—plus two more: electroreception and pressure sensing. The first allows them to detect the muscle contractions of their prey and the Earth’s geomagnetic fields for navigation. The second allows them to sense pressure waves in the water when a potential meal is near.

In essence, “they know you’re there well before you do,” Stump says, and will more than likely stay away. If you do manage to actually see a shark, consider yourself lucky.

For starters, Stump suggests that you avoid swimming or diving near where people are fishing. Anglers use bait and chum, which draw large fish from the surrounding area. That, in turn, might bring in sharks that want to feed on those large fish. By the same logic, the presence of diving birds like gannets or pelicans can also indicate that sharks are nearby.

[Related: Could an ancient megashark still lurk in the deep seas?]

When swimming in open waters, always buddy up. Avoid taking dips at night, dawn, and dusk when many species are actively hunting, and avoid wearing jewelry when snorkeling, surfing, or engaging in other water sports as the reflective quality can resemble the shimmer of fish scales and other shark-prey attributes.

There’s a common rumor that period blood attracts sharks. No one has found data to support this, so don’t feel like you have to stay out of the water just because you’re wearing a tampon.

What to do during a shark encounter

In the mighty rare chance that a shark comes near enough to bite you, there are some expert-approved strategies to help you survive the ordeal. 

If a shark swims too close for comfort, kick at it or hit it in the face with a stick, swim shoe, or even your fist. That’s usually enough to send the shark fleeing in the opposite direction. Once it leaves, get out of the water as soon as possible—it will be less inclined to back off during a second or third attack. Swim slowly and calmly to shore or a nearby boat, keeping your eyes on the animal if it’s still hanging around.

If a shark is acting aggressively while you’re scuba diving (rushing at you, hunching its back, lowering its side fins, swimming in a fast zig zag or up and down motion), back up against something solid like a reef or boulder to decrease the number of angles from which the animal can get to you. If that’s not an option, swim slowly to the surface back-to-back with your dive partner until you reach the boat.

If a shark bites you—it will likely be on a limb—and doesn’t let go right away, fight back by hitting and clawing at sensitive areas like its eyes and gills. If you sustain any type of wound, Stump says to treat it like any other injury: Get out of the water, focus on first aid, stop the bleeding, and go to the hospital for more serious treatment.

The bottom line is, you can’t let a fear of sharks keep you from savoring your vacation on the ocean. Swim smartly, recreate responsibly, and remember that you’re more likely to get hurt by a hotel toilet than a shark.

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In 1987, Justin Schmidt, a biologist at the Southwestern Biological Institute, found himself up a tree in Costa Rica. Shimmying over a branch that extended precariously over a cliff, he was trying to get closer to a black wasp nest hanging in the limbs of the tree to collect a few specimens for research. 

He was being careful, and had come geared up with a bee veil to prevent the flying insects from stinging his face. But the wasps were more determined than he was prepared. They hovered as close as they could, and then, instead of stinging, squirted venom directly into his eyes.

The burning sensation and the pain were immediate. Unable to see, Justin screamed for help as he slid down the tree with two legs wrapped around the trunk, and a bag of wasps hanging from one of his hands.

“That was an adventure,” he laughs now. 

Getting stung by insects—often extraordinarily painful ones—is an occupational hazard for the author of The Sting of the Wild. He’s experienced everything, from the comparatively manageable burning pain of the paper wasp, to the blinding electric shock of the tarantula hawk wasp. 

[Related: He’s let thousands of insects bite and sting him—here’s what he’s learned]

All of this has taught him how much a sting can hurt, but most importantly, how to avoid them. Should you run into these insects in the wild, Schmidt’s lessons can come in handy—starting with never disturbing a wasp nest. 

Bees, wasps, and hornets, oh my!

Ninety to 100 people die yearly from allergic reactions resulting from bee, hornet, and wasp stings. This is also the most common potentially fatal animal encounter in the outdoors.

However, not all stinging insects are created equal. Hornets are a type of wasp that tends to be more aggressive than bees and produce more painful stings. To make matters worse, wasps and some bees don’t lose their stingers after they jab you, so they can do so repeatedly. Other types of bees, on the other hand, are one and done. 

But no matter if it’s once or multiple times, what happens in your body when one of these insects attacks you is pretty similar. Through the sting, bees or wasps envenomate you by injecting specific toxins and enzymes.

Your body registers the intrusion almost right away. White blood cells race to the rescue and mast cells (a type of white blood cell) release histamines. These compounds play a key role in your body’s response and can cause swelling. As the venom spreads, it breaks down the membrane of any cell it touches. This can activate your immune system, which ultimately creates antibodies against the venom.

[Related: The US is running out of wasp venom. That’s bad.]

This is when those who experience highly allergic responses to bee or wasp stings (only 5 percent of the population) should resort to an epinephrine autoinjector (like an EpiPen) and immediate medical attention to prevent anaphylaxis. The rest will only feel throbbing pain, irritation, swelling, and itching. 

It’s certainly not pleasant, but without an overly sensitive reaction, most adults can handle up to 10 stings per pound of bodyweight without major consequences. Any more than that and the venom can cause your kidneys to struggle and clog as they try to rid your body of damaged cell tissue.

The amount of venom an insect injects determines how painful a sting is, and it can vary depending on the species. But whether you run into a bee or a wasp, you’re probably better off with no sting at all.

How to avoid a sting

The easiest and most effective way of avoiding stings is keeping your distance from nests, colonies, and swarms. If you happen to stumble upon one, walk swiftly and calmly in the opposite direction. This will prevent you from further riling up the insects. You should also make your exit in a straight line, as running in zig-zag will just keep you in the danger zone for longer, Schmidt says.

If a swarm attacks you, run as fast as you can away from it, and preferably toward people who may be able to help. By removing yourself from the immediate vicinity, you may be able to prove to the insects that you’re not a threat and they’re more likely to leave you alone.

However, if you are dealing with one or two stinging insects buzzing around your head, don’t freak out. Chances are, the bee, wasp, or hornet is just investigating to assess the threat. If you swat at it or violently jerk from side to side, you may be indicating you’re trouble, and encouraging the insect to sting. 

Hiding in plain sight is also a good idea. For this, Schmidt recommends you keep still and hold your breath. 

“Breath is what tells them you’re there,” he says. 

Because most insects get cues from smells in the air, when you hold your breath for 10, 30, or even 50 seconds, they will no longer detect your presence. This will very likely result in bees and wasps leaving you in peace.

Next, when it comes to your outdoors wardrobe, choose light colors, and ditch hues like purple, violet, and blue, as bees are especially attracted to them. Contrary to what you might think, floral prints are also ok, as fabrics don’t have those ultraviolet colors in real flowers bees love so much.

[Related: Bees deal with darkness the same way humans do]

Another myth is that perfumes or scented sunscreens can entice bees, wasps, and hornets. This is not true. Lemon may be an exception, though. The citrusy smell resembles a bee pheromone, which might make you particularly attractive to these insects if you wear it on a hike.  

What to do if you get stung

If they haven’t already, chances are a bee or wasp will sting you at some point in your life. When they do, don’t panic. 

Start by moving away from the area where it happened in case there are more insects nearby. If the culprit is a bee, remove the stinger by scraping your fingernail over the sting to dislodge it. Studies show that leaving the stinger in for as little as eight seconds can increase swelling by 30 percent, so act quickly. 

If you experience abnormal swelling or shortness of breath, you may be having an acute allergic reaction. In that case, your first and most important priority is to seek medical attention immediately and as fast as you can.

[Related: What You Need To Know About The EpiPen]

On the other hand, if everything looks normal, then your next step will be to focus on recovery. First, wash the sting with soap and water to avoid infection. If it itches, use a topical steroid or oral antihistamine. Follow up by applying a cold compress on the affected area to reduce swelling and pain.

Should you not have access to any medication, Schmidt recommends making a paste with a small amount of table salt and water (or another liquid), and put it directly on the sting site to relieve pain.

“We don’t know why, but it does seem to work,” Schmidt suggests. You should also avoid applying heat, ammonia, and vinegar to the site, he adds, as they are useless at best, and can make pain more acute at worst.

Finally, if you have a history of severe allergic reactions, remember to always carry auto-injectable epinephrine with you, no matter if you’re in an urban area or in the middle of the backcountry. If a bee or wasp stings you and you have to inject yourself, make sure to visit a nearby emergency room right away.

Correction May 25, 2021: An earlier version of this story said that all bees can only sting once, but some can sting multiple times.
Correction May 25, 2021: An earlier version of this story suggested human cells have cell walls, but they do not—they have cell membranes.

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Lightning is a mesmerizing natural phenomenon. The way it lights up the night sky with bolts of searing electricity is, well, electrifying. But anyone who has ever experienced the shock and awe of a nearby lightning strike knows it’s much more than a free light show—lightning demands respect.

So before summer storm season starts in earnest, take a moment to learn about lightning safety so you can protect yourself when the clouds roll in. 

What is lightning

Lightning isn’t cast down by Zeus or summoned by Thor—it happens when positive and negative electrostatic charges build up in the atmosphere. When those opposing charges equalize, there’s a rapid discharge of powerful electricity (up to 300 million volts) in a visible explosion: lightning. 

These charges can occur within clouds, but it’s when they link the clouds and the ground that lightning poses a threat to those of us on the earth below. When that happens, anything (or anyone) can be struck.

How lightning strikes

But while we tend to think of lightning as single bolts shooting from cloud to ground, the phenomenon is much more complicated. In fact, the National Weather Service says there are five ways lightning can strike people.

You can also be hit by a “side flash.” This occurs when someone is standing close to a tree or another tall object. When lightning strikes that object, an arm of electricity, also referred to as a step leader, may branch off from the main bolt as the current jumps from object to human.

Conduction strikes occur when, as their name implies, conductive materials are involved. It’s like sticking a fork in an electrical socket: if you’re touching something like a metal fence when lightning strikes it, you are going to absorb the shock. This type of shock can even get you indoors if you’re showering, using a landline telephone, or touching anything else that’s connected to wires or pipes that run outdoors.

Streamers are the least-common way to experience a lightning strike, but don’t discount them entirely. Think of these as the disembodied arms of a flash of lightning. When the lead bolt discharges, a streamer can appear nearby. And if you form a conductive bridge between one of these streamers and the ground, you can be struck.

The damage lightning does

When you are struck by lightning, a few things happen. First, the electricity from the bolt moves over the surface of your skin, potentially causing burns—this is called a flashover. Second, the current runs through your cardiovascular and nervous system, which is what causes the most damage. 

Because lightning is so hot (five times hotter than the surface of the sun), burn damage is also a possibility, but may not be evident until necrosis or muscle damage sets in. Your circulatory system can be clogged, kidneys damaged, and seizures and muscle contractions may ensue.

The type of damage depends on the severity of the strike, but you may experience an irregular heartbeat, optical disturbances, memory issues, and ruptured ear drums. According to Miguel Pineda, ER doctor and wilderness medicine fellow at UC San Diego, the extreme electric charge and pressure change caused by a strike can even paralyze the lungs and heart, leading to respiratory and cardiac arrest.

What is unique to lightning strikes, Pineda says, is that the paralysis of these affected organs will resolve after several minutes, similar to a computer rebooting. That is, if the lightning itself hasn’t killed you already.

Lightning kills around 20 people each year and injures hundreds more. In 2020, that number was 17 and included people from all ages and walks of life. Almost all were outdoors when they were struck, and many were under trees or tall structures. And while the chances of being struck or killed are low, it’s wise to do everything you can to avoid being hit.

How to avoid lightning strikes

Before you even step outside, it’s critical that you’re aware of the forecast. Check local and national severe weather forecasts so you know what to expect and can make a plan for if the weather turns sour.

Once you’re outdoors, the first rule of avoiding lightning is to take shelter as soon as you hear thunder, which is a guaranteed sign there’s lightning nearby (you can’t have thunder without lightning). But don’t think you’re safe because the dark clouds are far off on the horizon—lightning can strike as far as 20 miles away from a storm, according to Greg Schoor.

That’s why it’s important to take cover. Head indoors or to a vehicle right away, because there’s no safe place outdoors in a lightning storm. Stay far from bodies of water like ponds or even puddles; these are excellent conductors.

If you’re stuck outside on a hike or camping trip, find whatever shelter you can, whether you end up against an embankment, in a cave, or under a cliff. “In the most basic terms, don’t be the tallest thing around,” Schoor says.

You should also remove any backpacks with metal gear that could turn you into a human lightning rod. And whatever you do, don’t seek shelter under trees. “Your risk of getting struck by lightning increases a lot because you’re associating yourself with the tallest thing around,” explains Schoor.

If you’re with others, spread out as far from each other as possible, recommends Roland Sosa, a volunteer mountain rescue member who has trained extensively for lightning encounters and witnessed the aftermath of one firsthand while on a Scouting trip as a teen.

And if there are no options for shelter nearby, assume the lightning position: crouch down with your hands over your ears, heels touching. This will allow the electrical current to pass more easily through your body if you’re struck.

If you find a spot indoors, stay off of landlines, out of showers or tubs, and, if you’re using a laptop, leave it unplugged. As mentioned above, it’s wise to stay away from any device that’s connected to outside power or pipes.

Then, once the storm has passed, Schoor says to wait 30 minutes before heading back outside or leaving shelter; you can still be struck if the storm is heading away.

Myths

Let’s take a moment to dispel some of the myths surrounding lighting strikes. For example, you can’t be electrified by touching someone who has just been struck; the human body doesn’t store electricity.

What to do if someone near you gets struck

The first thing to do is to call 91. If they are unconscious or not breathing, begin CPR immediately. According to Pineda, this allows the heart, lungs, and brain to receive enough oxygen to help them restart after cardiac or respiratory arrest.

Even if you or the struck individual is conscious—even walking—it’s still important to get to the hospital immediately, as not all injuries will occur or be visible right away. The good news: “If treated immediately, the majority of lightning strike victims are able to completely recover,” Pineda says.

So take heart and take cover the next time a thunderstorm rolls in. That way, your chances are good that you’ll live to see the next summer storm that lights up the night.

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A pair of yellow eyes bobbing just above the surface of the water. A dark, scaly spine gliding through the marsh. A wide, rounded snout full of sharp teeth. Alligators spark fear and curiosity in many, but these prehistoric reptiles aren’t nearly as dangerous as you might think.

While tragedies certainly occur—like when an alligator snatches a child from his father’s grasp—such horrific events are few and far between. Still, they grab headlines, causing would-be adventurers to quake in fear at the very sight of one of these wily reptiles. But with a little understanding and at least an ounce of respect, you can avoid a tussle with a gator and escape with your life if worse comes to worst.

They are carnivores, but humans aren’t one of their preferred meals. They’re more defensive than aggressive, too, so attacks on people are extremely rare. In fact, you’re more likely to drown near an alligator than you are to be attacked by the animal itself. 

For example, even though Florida is home to more than 1 million of these creatures, the state averages only six alligator bite victims per year and gators killed just 26 people there between 1948 and 2020, according to a report by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.

Still, these large reptiles should be treated with respect. If you’re in an area or near a body of water where alligators live—and they generally populate the coastal US from Texas to North Carolina—it’s wise to be wary. Alligators can inhabit lakes, rivers, and swamps, in fresh or salt water, and full-grown adults can range from 6 to 13 feet long (though the average is closer to 7 feet). The larger they are, the more damage they can cause.

So if an alligator sees or hears you coming (they have acute senses, including hearing), it will likely make itself scarce and you may never even know it was there. Even so, assume the creatures are hiding under brush or just beneath the surface of the water, especially in places like Louisiana or Florida where they could be living in nearly any body of water.

[Related: The best remedy for a snakebite: carry car keys]

If you do see one (or several), keep your distance—at least 15 to 30 feet. While alligators aren’t typically aggressive, they will protect themselves or their nests if they feel threatened. Alligators can be active year-round, especially during warmer summer months and between dusk and dawn when they do most of their hunting, but you should be extra wary in June during nesting season when they will be protecting their eggs, and in the spring when mating season begins.

No matter the time of day, however, avoid swimming or wading (that goes for pets, too) in areas where alligators may live or feed. And whatever you do, don’t try to see how close you can get for a better look, especially if there’s a nest nearby. If you find an alligator and it starts hissing, you’re too close.

Men, especially, should take note of this guidance, as they seem to be the ones most likely to ignore it. According to a 2019 report in The Journal of Wildlife Management, more than 81 percent of alligator bite victims in Florida from 1948 to 2014 were male (a similar percentage to snakebite victims as chance would have it).

But no matter who you are, the “stay clear” rule applies whether you’re on land or water, and the latter is an especially dangerous place to be within striking distance of an alligator. They can be hard to spot and are much faster swimmers than people. In fact, nearly 94 percent of Florida bite victims were injured in water or near the shore. What’s more, the severity of the bite seems directly correlated to the depth of the water: the deeper the water, the more serious the injuries.

So if you are swimming in an area where gators might reside, do so with at least one friend who can help you keep an eye out for potential dangers.

[Related: What to do if you encounter a bison]

And whatever you do, never feed wild alligators—it’s unhealthy for the animals and bad for human-gator interactions. “They’re going to start to associate humans with food and that’s a bad thing,” Elsey says. “They are reasonably intelligent and they’ll learn where to get free handouts.” In fact, more than 34 percent of bite incidents in Florida occurred because people were feeding the animals.

“It’s something I can’t hammer home enough: don’t feed gators,” Elsey says. That includes tossing fish guts overboard when fishing.

The key, then, is to move away quickly. “Depart the area in a straight line,” says Frank Mazzotti, professor of wildlife ecology at the University of Florida. “It’s absolutely a myth that you zigzag. It just keeps you in the strike radius of that alligator longer.” It shouldn’t take more than a few very brisk strides to get away as the animal will likely give up after 15 or 20 feet, he says. 

On the other hand, if an alligator picks a fight in the water, you no longer have the upper hand: the animal is a much better swimmer than you. It might try to roll after it latches on to a limb. If that happens, don’t try to stop it. Roll with it, but fight like your life depends on it—because it might.

Poke it in the eyes, shove an arm down its throat, and punch it on the end of its sensitive snout. The key is to convince the alligator that you’re not worth the trouble, Mazzotti says.

He also points out that alligators often bite and then immediately let go (more than 36 percent of the time according to The Journal of Wildlife Management) or bite and then loosen their grip to readjust. If they do, take that opportunity to escape.

But if you weren’t quick enough, don’t try to squirm loose or pry it’s jaws open—you won’t be able to. Just fight back as hard as you can until the animal lets go.

Correction April 14, 2021: This story previously did not include North Carolina as alligator habitat.

The post How to avoid an alligator encounter—and what to do if you can’t appeared first on Popular Science.

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It’s happened to many outdoor enthusiasts. As soon as spring peeks its sunny face, you pack up and head to the nearest campsite, only to find you’ve made a big mistake. The gear you put away only three months ago is exactly the way you left it—or worse. Your fuel canisters are empty, your rain fly is nowhere to be found and, in what seems a cruel joke, your inflatable sleeping pad has managed to get a leak over hibernation.

Unless you have an equipment shop or camp store nearby, your options will not be many. At best, you could be moderately uncomfortable or inconvenienced. But at worst, you could be looking at a trip back home, or putting yourself in a life-threatening situation.

This is easily avoidable, though—nothing that a little spring cleaning won’t do.

Take stock of your camping gear

Before your first camping trip of the season, pull out all of your implements from storage and get a good idea of what is there and what might be missing. This is when you count all your tent poles and stakes, and you open your sleeping bag’s stuff sack to ensure you’re not going away with a three-month-old laundry bag.

Check all the big items like sleeping pads and shelter, and don’t forget about the smaller but critical ones, such as matches and your mess kit—you don’t want to start cooking in the backcountry and realize your spork is MIA.

[Related: Survival cooking: how to cook with sticks]

Inspect your first aid kit, too. You may have used bandages, antibiotic ointment or pain killers last season, and forgotten to replace them. See what might be missing and restock as necessary.

The same goes for your gear repair kit. Make sure you have the patches, sealant, or tape you might need for emergency fixes in the wilderness. Skip this step and you may not be a happy camper when a rock pokes a hole in your tent.

Finally, confirm how much fuel you have for your camp stove—not just how many canisters, but how much fuel is in them. You’ll be eating a lot of crackers and peanut butter if once you’re there you realize you can’t prepare a hot meal after a night or two.

Clean up your outdoors equipment

Once you make sure all your gear is present and accounted for, confirm that it’s clean and ready to go.

Hannah Singleton, who’s been guiding backpacking trips for Wildland Trekking since 2014, and is in charge of prepping gear for entire groups, recommends giving textiles such as sleeping bags and tents a good cleaning before you store them for the winter. But if you forgot, spring is as good a time as any.

If you don’t want to ruin your equipment, the safest bet is to read and follow each item’s manufacturer’s instructions carefully. But if that tag is too worn to read, follow the general principles. Use a detergent designed for the appropriate type of gear and material—down and synthetic bags require different cleaning products, for example. Also, washing machines are not appropriate for most tents, and you should keep items, such as rain jackets and tent flys, away from the dryer as heat can damage them.

[Related: How to make your outdoor gear last longer]

Spring can be muddy and wet, so now is also a good time to re-waterproof rain gear and hiking boots with wash-in or spray-on repellents. Just like with your other camping implements, make sure you’re using a product with a formula designed for the equipment you own.

Don’t forget to wash small tools and items, too, like hydration bladders and dinnerware—a lot of yucky stuff can grow in three months of darkness.

Test, inspect and repair all of your implements

Finally, test out your camping gear and inspect it carefully. Pitch your tent and unroll your sleeping bag in your living room or backyard to repair any holes, tears, or zippers that have seen better days.

If you have an inflatable sleeping pad, pump it up with air to check for leaks or damaged valves. If you find any, patch or seal them. Test your stove, too, and make sure it lights and functions properly.

[Related: Save money and protect the environment by repurposing your old outdoor gear]

Once you’ve gone through the big items, move on to smaller articles. Start by putting new batteries in items like headlamps, satellite phones or GPS units to ensure they work and have enough juice for your trip. Make sure to replace those items that fail the test.

Give yourself enough time

Whatever you do, don’t wait until the day before your trip to check everything is in order. Singleton recommends starting the process at least a week before your scheduled trip to give yourself plenty of time to prep or replace your equipment.

“We rely on our gear for safety and comfort in the outdoors. If you rely on it too heavily and it fails you, then you’re in a bad position,” she says.

Be proactive before you head out for the season. That way you’ll have memories of an unforgettable trip, instead of a lesson from an annoying teachable moment.

The post How to prep your gear for the first camping trip of the season appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

This post has been updated. It was originally published on 02/12/2021.

Frozen toes at the bottom of your sleeping bag, the fear of frostbite looming in the back of your mind, and the ever-present possibility that you didn’t bring enough layers.

A fear of nights spent outdoors in below-freezing temperatures is enough to deter even the most passionate campers from spending a night in the wild in wintertime. After all, no one likes to wait for the sun to rise as they shiver.

“People hear ‘winter’ and they think ‘impossible.’ But if you have the right systems and the right gear, it can be comfortable and fun,” says Katie Oram, a winter field instructor at the National Outdoors Leadership School, who routinely spends 10 to 18 days at a time in often snowy, wintery backcountry conditions.

Learning how to beat that unforgiving chill and stay warm and cozy will allow you to have the full winter wonderland experience, plus take advantage of the empty trails, quiet animal encounters, and the beautiful silent nights.

Get the right equipment

First things first: make sure your camping gear can handle the cold, whether you’re sleeping in the backcountry or at a developed campsite. While an ultralight tent and lightweight sleeping bag will do in spring, you are guaranteed to have an unpleasant night if you set out during the colder months without items specifically designed for winter.

And if you’re not sleeping, you’ll be exhausted, which means you’re not going to have fun.

Start with a tent that’s rated for 3.5 or four seasons, which will often feature heavier fabrics, few vents, and a rain fly that extends all the way to the ground. They are designed to trap heat in and keep snow from collapsing your structure, making them much warmer and more suitable for winter climates than typical three-season tents.

Related: How to avoid (and treat) hypothermia

Next, check local weather forecasts and make sure your sleeping bag is rated at or below the overnight temperatures you’re expecting. Keep in mind, though, that rating parameters may differ from brand to brand. Some refer to the temps at which you can sleep comfortably, while others to the lowest possible temperature at which an average person will feel comfortable.

Also, men’s and women’s bags are rated differently as women typically sleep cold. If you’re a woman with a men’s or unisex bag, it might not be good for the temperature you think it is. Check the tags or manufacturers’ website for more details about your specific bag.

If you don’t think your bag can hack it on its own, slip it inside another bag, or use a sleeping bag liner for a double layer of warmth. Some models can raise your bag rating by as much as 30 degrees Fahrenheit, while battery-powered pads and liners can keep you even cozier.

Finally, don’t neglect your sleeping pad—it keeps you off the cold ground, which can suck heat from your body, so it’s just as important as your bag. Start with an insulated, inflatable pad, and consider layering it with a closed-cell foam pad for extra warmth. Just make sure the pads are at least as long as you are tall (feet hanging off the end leave your toes vulnerable), and place the one with the highest insulation rating (R-value) closest to your body.

Layer up

Especially in winter, the outdoors is all about layers—that also goes for when you’re inside your sleeping bag.

Start with a warm base layer that’s comfortably snug and close to your skin. Synthetic fabrics or wool will do nicely. Outdoors people say cotton kills, and that goes double in winter, so stay away from it. If cotton or hemp garments get wet from snow, rain, or even sweat, they can make your body temperature drop dramatically, and take too long to dry.

[Related: Winter camping is a great way to see more nature and fewer people]

A base layer, together with a warm hat, a pair of gloves, a neck gaiter, and one or two pairs of socks may be enough for warmer sleepers. But if you’re still cold, Oram suggests adding another layer or two, like a fleece sweater or pants. Top it all off with a light puffy jacket for extra warmth if necessary, and you’ll be good to go. The key is to go for three layers or less, as more will prevent your body from heating up the space inside the bag and keep you warm.

And if after all of this you’re still chilly, drape your puffy coat or a jacket on top of your sleeping bag like a blanket.

Tips for sleeping cozy

Before you even climb into your sleeping bag, prepare yourself by getting your body moving.

“You’ll get warmer faster and stay that way for longer if you’re already somewhat warm before you get in your sleeping bag,” Oram points out.

The point isn’t to break a sweat—remember: damp layers will make it harder to stay warm—but to raise your body temperature enough so that when you hit the hay, you’re already nice and toasty. Shoveling snow around your campsite or doing some good ol’ pushups or jumping jacks will do the trick.

Next, don’t underestimate the power of hand and foot warmers. There are many options available, from single-use disposable sachets to rechargeable battery-operated foot and hand warmers. Hold them to keep your hands warm, place them at the bottom of your bag to heat your feet, or stuff them into a chest pocket to warm your core.

You can give your sleeping bag a head start by making your own warmer too. Oram suggests heating a pot of water to near boiling, pouring it into a non-insulated, hard-sided bottle like a Nalgene, and placing it in your sleeping bag before you get in. Just make sure the cap is on tight so it doesn’t leak, and that the bottle is not hot enough to burn you.

“When I go to bed, that can be a total game-changer for me,” Oram says, noting that she will often fill up two bottles: one for her core, and the other for her feet.

Related: How to build a fire in the wilderness

Another tip is to treat yourself to a hot, carbohydrate-heavy meal, or high-calorie snack or beverage before you turn in. This will warm you from the inside out and start your body’s natural digestion engine to keep you warmer throughout the night.

If you’re not camping solo, you can also take advantage of a camping partner to keep you both warm. Use a two-person sleeping bag or zip two bags together so you can get cozy. In this setup, wearing fewer layers will make sharing that body heat more efficient.

Finally, if you’ve heard about not holding your pee to keep warm at night, think again. This notion comes from the belief that your body expends precious energy in maintaining your bladder’s content at body temperature, but this is simply not true.

“Your body does not expend more energy to keep urine warm since it is already at body temperature,” says Dr. Ladin Yurteri-Kaplan, a urologist at Columbia University Medical Center.

Exposing your skin to the cool air might give you a chill, but going or not going won’t make a difference when it comes to surviving the frigid cold. Regularly holding it is not the healthiest or most pleasant choice, though, so when nature calls, make sure to answer.

Keep those toes warm

Your extremities might be the most important parts of your body to care for and pay attention to as you seek to prevent discomfort and cold injuries such as frostbite.

Sleeping in damp clothing is always a bad idea, but this is especially true when it comes to socks. Tucking in with wet feet can cause frostbite or injury called immersion or trench foot, caused by prolonged exposure to wet and cold conditions that—worst-case scenario—can cause skin tissue to die.

“One pair of dry socks lives in my sleeping bag,” Oram says.

Empty space in your bag means more space that your body has to heat up, so if there’s too much of it, fill it. For this, use extra clothing layers like puffy jackets, fleece zip-ups, and spare socks, and concentrate them around your feet. Don’t forget to make sure they’re all dry.

The post How to stay warm while sleeping in the frigid outdoors appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

You’re out on a hike, or maybe cruising down a country road, snacking on an apple, a banana, or a handful of nuts. When you’re finished, all that’s left is a core, a peel, perhaps a shell or a raisin you didn’t want to eat. “It’s natural,” you tell yourself, tossing it into the woods or onto the side of the road. After all, food waste is biodegradable. Besides, something will come along and eat it. It’s not like you’re littering by throwing a candy wrapper or a plastic bottle into the woods.

But that orange peel or handful of trail mix you toss on the ground can cause a lot more damage than you may think. It could take years to biodegrade, endanger animals, or even put other people at risk.

So before you toss a piece of food waste into the grass, rocks, or woods, you should understand exactly what happens to any food you leave in the wild, intentionally or otherwise.

Food scraps don’t decompose as fast as you think

Most people know that food scraps are biodegradable. Just consider a backyard compost pile: add food scraps and waste and watch them break down in weeks or months, transforming into nutrient-rich soil that plants love.

But fewer people are aware that the conditions present in a compost pile or facility—like a microbe-rich environment, heat, and the frequent turning of materials—are required to break down food waste so quickly. Those conditions don’t exist in nature.

In fact, food scraps like orange and banana peels can take up to two years to break down in the wild, meaning they’re going to be sitting alongside the trail or in a ditch by the road for a lot longer than you might think.

So before you toss your coffee grounds or apple core into the bushes, follow this advice from Ben Lawhon, director of education and research at the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: “Ask yourself: ‘Would this item be here if I wasn’t?’”

Chances are, the answer is “no.” And even if those food scraps eventually biodegrade, they can lead to a lot of serious problems besides being an eyesore.

“It’s not that food scraps won’t [break down],” says Lawhon. “It’s a question of how long and will animals be affected.”

Animals are attracted to food waste

“Animals have a stupendously advanced sense of smell compared to us,” says Jeff Marion, a biologist and recreation ecologist. “That means that when you throw food out, it’s basically a neon light to all sorts of animals.” This includes seemingly innocuous scraps such as orange peels or a few nuts.

Because all human food, even in small amounts, can attract animals, it can cause issues for both people and wildlife. These problems often start with someone innocently dropping a handful of trail mix or attempting to burn food or packaging in a campfire. Even worse, people may willingly try to feed wildlife.

This can then cause what Lawhon and those in his field call attraction behavior, which refers to human actions that cause animals to overcome their natural wariness of people.

Once animals develop these food attraction behaviors, it’s hard to get rid of them. That’s because wildlife are opportunistic—once they obtain human food they will consistently return for more, Marion says.

That could lead to anything from small rodents chewing through backpacks to hungry bears wandering into campsites. It doesn’t have to start with large quantities of food, either.

“Even tiny amounts of food or discarded food wrappers that could never sustain a large animal are sufficient to create strong food attraction behaviors,” says Marion, drawing parallels to family dogs that consistently hover near children’s high-chairs at dinnertime. “So yes, even that apple core or spilled noodles that will decompose in a month or two are problematic.”

It may seem like little more than a nuisance when chipmunks or seagulls won’t leave you alone because they know there’s food nearby, but this sort of attraction behavior can quickly become dangerous. Consider bears, which may wander into campsites or onto trails at the slightest whiff of human food and endanger visitors. Or mice, which are often attracted to small scraps and can carry hantavirus, which can kill humans.

But attraction isn’t the only issue.

Human food can make animals sick

Animals becoming attracted to and subsequently becoming used to human food can lead to far-reaching health issues in animals.

“When [animals] access our food and trash, they adopt unnatural scavenging and begging food-attraction behaviors that lead to their ingesting unhealthy food, trash, and smellables like lotions or chapstick,” Marion says. These animals can also become dependent on human food, which can mean they stop eating and/or teaching their young how to find natural food sources.

Food scraps by the side of the road may even cause animal deaths because wildlife attracted to that food can be hit by a vehicle. The carcass then attracts other creatures like carrion birds, which can also get hit, creating a miserable cycle of wildlife death.

The food itself can also make animals sick and even kill them. Most of what people leave outdoors—peels, cores, and trail mix, to name a few—is almost never food that’s part of animals’ normal diet. Often, they can’t decipher the difference between actual food and scented items like chapstick, potato chip bags, and snack bar wrappers, which can be fatal.

At Grand Canyon National Park, 22 food-attracted but malnourished deer were found to have up to five pounds of plastic and foil food packaging obstructing their intestines after autopsies. Examiners discovered all that trash after the deer were euthanized for being aggressive and dangerous as a result of their strong attraction to, and dependence on, human food, according to researchers from the US Geological Survey.

Attraction can mean aggression

You see, the health and well-being of wildlife isn’t the only consideration to make before casually discarding food scraps outdoors. When animals are routinely attracted to humans and their food, they often become habituated to human presence, meaning they lose their innate fear of us. Habituation becomes worse when an animal becomes food-conditioned and equates humans with a free meal. From there, it’s a short leap to ripping or chewing into packs or coolers and becoming aggressive around people.

“Animals that obtain human food frequently develop dangerous food attraction behaviors and dependencies, turning them into aggressive beggars that can threaten human safety and property,” Marion says in his book, Leave No Trace in the Outdoors. “Once an animal reaches that point, it’s essentially game over.”

That’s the origin of the phrase many outdoorists are familiar with: “A fed bear is a dead bear.” Because when it comes to human-animal encounters, animals are often the losers. Even if a person is injured by a bear, bison, elk, or raccoon, the human usually recovers. The animal, however, is often relocated or killed to prevent further, potentially deadly, encounters. So it’s game over alright, but usually just for the animal.

“This is an avoidable impact. It’s within our power to keep animals away from human food,” Lawhon says.

Play your part by keeping your food to yourself

To prevent any of these unwelcome effects, the best thing to do with all of your food, food waste, trash, and smellables, is to properly store and dispose of it in a trash can or compost bin. Do not feed wildlife or allow them to access any of these items. Don’t throw any food or trash on the side of the road, toss it into the woods, or hide it under a rock. Don’t attempt to burn or bury it, either, as food waste and garbage is more difficult to burn than you think, and fire pits are one of the first areas wildlife investigate.

Always be prepared to safely store and carry your trash and food waste with you until you can properly dispose of it. If you’re planning a hike, pack a few trash bags or zip-top bags for scraps and wrappers, then throw them out when you get back home. Keep a few bags in your car, too, for on-the-road snacking and disposal. And if you pass other food waste on the trail or in the park, pick it up, even if it’s not yours. Because while negative individual impacts can have a harmful cumulative effect outdoors, positive individual impacts do just the opposite!

Remember, wildlife live in protected natural areas—we are temporary visitors to their homes and habitats, Marion says. It’s our responsibility to protect them by learning and adopting low-impact Leave No Trace practices, and that includes properly storing and disposing of all food and trash.

The post Once you know what happens to food you leave outdoors, you’ll stop doing it appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

The sky was black over California’s Yosemite National Park, our fire had burned itself out, and the last of us were ready to retire to our tents. We doused the fire with several bottles of water, and although the fire pit and ash still felt quite warm, no embers glowed in the darkness. We felt comfortable bidding each other goodnight and going to bed.

But in the morning, the campground host approached us with a soft reprimand: why hadn’t we put our fire out before dozing off? We had, we insisted. No, he said. About an hour after we had turned in, he had found a small blaze among the hot coals. He had doused it for us, but offered a warning that if it was too hot to touch when we put it out, it was too hot to leave.

Our group’s failure to completely extinguish the fire could have been devastating, especially considering California is the country’s most wildfire-prone state. Blazes there have steadily increased over the last few years and eight of the Golden State’s 10 largest have occurred in the last decade. That makes preventing campfire-started wildfires more important than ever.

And while the Forest Service reports that 87 percent of wildfires are caused by people (outdoor equipment, power lines, exhaust sparks, discarded cigarette butts, even arson have been to blame), runaway campfires don’t represent a majority of wildfire ignitions.

However, there have been more improperly built and abandoned campfires this year, says Stanton Florea, a Forest Service spokesperson who focuses on fires. That’s at least partially attributable to a dramatic increase in recreational use of public lands and the relative inexperience of many visitors, he says.

So what’s the proper way to build (and extinguish) a campfire so you don’t accidentally start a wildfire? Build with caution, choose the right materials, and make sure to put it out completely.

Make sure campfires are allowed

While a campfire may seem like an essential part of every overnight outing in the great outdoors, you must know ahead of time whether the area you’ll be camping in allows fires. Some parks and forests only allow them in designated fire rings. Others will let you dig your own. And some ban campfires completely, often in at-risk or fire-prone areas. Occasionally this will be a permanent rule, but sometimes it’s only a seasonal burn ban during times of drought.

Never build a campfire where they are prohibited, but if you are allowed to start a warming blaze, take stock of your surroundings first. If the area is especially dry, it may not be wise to start a fire, no matter what the rules are. The same goes for wind, which can transport hot embers farther than you think—up to a mile in windy conditions.

Build a campfire safely

If conditions are favorable and fires are allowed, always build yours in a designated fire ring or pit if one is available. If not, choose a flat spot of ground at least 15 feet away from tents, trees, and other plant life or camping gear, the Forest Service says. Make sure you look up to check for low-hanging branches, and if there are sticks, pine needles, or other flammable debris around the area, rake them all away so there is a 5-foot area of bare earth on all sides of the fire.

You can also use a fire pan or fire safe: metal bowls or box-like structures that offer a space to build a fire that helps contain the flames while protecting the ground beneath from being scorched. These are helpful in environments where fire could damage delicate plant life or char the ground or rock under the fire.

Then make sure to build your campfire with care. Start by having a source of water nearby such as a bucket or several full water bottles, plus a small shovel for extinguishing—if something goes wrong, you won’t want to waste time finding a way to put it out.

Find your firewood

There are multiple ways to find firewood when you’re camping, but they vary depending on where you are staying. In a developed campground, you can likely buy firewood and fire starters from the camp store or nearby grocery store. Just don’t transport firewood far beyond your campground. Restrictions vary from state to state regarding how far is too far, but you should try to purchase wood as close to your destination as possible to prevent the spread of invasive species like the emerald ash borer.

If you must collect firewood, never cut down live trees or branches. Nor should you pull up dead standing trees or bushes as they may be home to wildlife and native insects. Only collect dead, downed wood that is no larger than your wrist, and only if there are no posted restrictions on collecting it—check signs at campsites, near trailheads, or on park websites.

Ensure the wood is no longer green, as wood that hasn’t had time to dry out will smoke and burn inefficiently. You can tell if wood is green by bending it. If it bends without breaking, it’s likely too wet and green, but if it easily snaps in two, it’s dead, dry, and ready to burn.

Be careful about over-harvesting, though. “When an area has been ‘mined’ of all its dead and downed wood, you can have a significant effect on the ecosystem,” warns Ben Lawhon, director of education and research at the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics. The breakdown and decomposition of dead vegetation is important to the health of the land.

To prevent that from happening, walk a few minutes away from your campsite and collect wood from a larger surrounding area. Leave large fallen logs and limbs where they are and collect smaller branches instead.

Maintain your fire

Once you have a fire going, add branches or logs slowly and never leave your fire unattended. Don’t burn trash or non-wood objects as they often won’t burn at all (chip bags and batteries), can spark wildfires themselves by catching quickly and drifting away from the fire (paper plates and napkins), or can create toxic fumes.

In fact, commonly burned items like cigarette butts, candy wrappers, batteries, and plasticware send dangerous toxins such as cadmium, lead, and mercury into the atmosphere, according to a study by the Missoula Technology and Development Center and the Forest Service. Many of the toxins they found are proven carcinogens and are dangerous if ingested or inhaled by people or animals.

Put out the flames

When it’s time to extinguish your fire, do so completely. Let the fire burn out and turn to ash. Then pour plenty of water on the embers and coals, drowning them entirely. The Forest Service advises doing so until all hissing noises stop. Often, that won’t be until the ash is soaked and soupy.

If you don’t have quite enough water at your disposal, use a shovel to stir the damp embers with surrounding dirt, ash, and sand. Continue stirring and raking until no embers are visible, but also until the ash is no longer hot to the touch.

As Smokey Bear says, “If it’s too hot to touch, it’s too hot to leave.” So place your hand directly over (but not touching) the ashes to check the temperature. Do this before you go to bed and again before you leave your campsite.

Leave no trace

Also before you move on, make sure you don’t leave anything behind. If you’re in a developed campground with a fire ring, you may be allowed to leave ash in the ring and leftover firewood nearby (check campground rules first). But if you’re in the backcountry or somewhere else without a fire ring, make sure to follow Leave No Trace Principles before leaving camp.

Scatter unused wood, bring any campfire litter with you, and if you’re in a true wilderness area, collect the wet ash and scatter it over a large area away from your campsite. In undeveloped, backcountry areas, it’s important to make the area appear as if you were never there at all.

Only you can prevent wildfires

“A campfire is as much a part of camping as the tent, but there’s a way to do it without creating unnecessary and avoidable impacts,” Lawhon says. “It just takes a little more work.”

Smokey Bear said it best: “Only you can prevent wildfires.” So remember the lessons from the bear in the ranger hat the next time you enjoy a campfire: follow local rules and regulations, pick a safe spot, build your fire carefully, extinguish it completely, and leave no trace. And don’t forget the s’mores.

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Bud Ahrens thought he’d done everything right, but a bear still found him.

After setting up camp in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in Minnesota, he and his camping companion put away their gear, hung their food from a high branch to keep it out of the reach of bears and other critters, and cleaned up food scraps and dishes before heading down the trail for some hiking and rock climbing. But when they returned to camp later that afternoon, they stopped in their tracks—there was a black bear on top of their flattened tent.

The animal had honed in on their single mistake: a forgotten bag of trail mix in a pant pocket stashed away in the tent. Now Ahrens, winter program director at Voyageur Outward Bound School in Ely, Minnesota, had to figure out how to run off the curious black bear and salvage what was left of their slashed-up shelter.

When they succeeded, they breathed a sigh of relief, lowered their food bag, and walked 40 feet down the trail to see off some canoers. They were gone for mere moments, but when they returned, the bear had, too, and was trying to abscond with their food.

They waved their arms, threw rocks toward the bear, yelled at the top of their lungs, and, fortunately, were able to scare the bear away for good, saving their only sustenance from being devoured by the omnivorous forest-dweller. But because they were informed and prepared, they knew how to properly respond to the surprise encounter.

Know before you go

A bear in your camp might seem like a terrifying situation, but Ahrens laughs as he tells the story. He’s had many encounters with black bears in his years of hiking, camping, and canoeing in the Boundary Waters wilderness, and he’ll likely have many more. But that doesn’t stop him from venturing out, because he knows enough about bears to feel comfortable reacting to their presence.

For starters, he knows that black bears are more timid and easily scared than grizzly bears—their larger, more aggressive cousins. Even though black bears can weigh more than 500 pounds, have claws around 2 inches long, and will easily win a fight if provoked, it is very unlikely that they will attack a human.

He also knows black bears are especially active in the spring when they’re coming out of hibernation hungry and ready to fill their bellies, and fall when they are looking to pack on the weight before winter. That means you should be extra careful about securing your food during those seasons.

Additionally, he understands that mother bears, like any animal, are very protective of their young and should be treated with an abundance of caution. Yes, baby bears are cute, but you should never approach one, as its mother will likely perceive you as a threat and become aggressive.

Despite the presence of black bears in most areas of the country, it’s rare that they kill even one person in a given year. Those infrequent deaths are typically the result of abnormal occurrences such as sick or hungry bears, or people getting too close, often with dogs. In fact, most of the damage black bears do is to dumpsters, tents, and food bags, not hikers.

Even so, Ahrens says you shouldn’t head outdoors before asking a ranger if black bears have been spotted in the area, whether they have cubs, and even if it’s been a good year for berries (more fruitful bushes mean black bears will be less likely to be tempted by food at your campsite).

Have an anti-bear game plan

When it comes to black bears, your best course of action will be to avoid an encounter to begin with, and that means taking necessary precautions. Start with food waste. Don’t leave food scraps or trash on the trail or around your campsite. Not even fruit cores or peels, which can attract wildlife and take years to decompose.

You also shouldn’t leave dirty dishes around camp or dump leftovers or dirty dishwater in the fire pit—those smells can attract bears. Clean your dishes and dispose of any waste at least 200 feet away from your campsite.

And always store your food in a bag when leaving camp or going to bed. Often called bear-bagging, it involves placing all your food, including food trash like wrappers, in a bag and hoisting it high into the air using rope or cord and a sturdy tree branch for leverage. Tie the rope to the trunk or a low branch and make sure the sack hangs 10 feet above the ground so a bear standing on its back legs can’t reach (black bears can stand up to 7 feet tall and extend their paws around 2 feet more) and far enough from camp that you won’t be in immediate danger if a bear does try to swat it down.

But don’t just put food in your bear bag or canister. “The bear’s palate is a lot less refined than our palate,” Ahrens says. “If it smells, it should be packed away and put in the bear hang as well.” That includes lotion, chapstick, toothpaste, and deodorant.

If there are no large trees in your area, pack all your bear-enticing items in a bear canister (a solid, bear-proof container) and tie it to the base of a small tree, bush, or boulder to keep it from rolling away or being snatched by a bear. Ahrens also suggests placing clean pots and pans on top of the canister. This will act as a wake-up call: if a bear or other creature tries to get into your stash, it will likely knock the pots off, making enough noise to alert you.

In developed campgrounds within bear territory, you’ll often find lockers at each campsite for food storage—you can use those instead of a bear bag or canister. As a last resort, store food inside a fully closed and locked vehicle.

And when you head to bed, keep headlamps or flashlights and something that makes noise inside your tent in case you wake up to a black bear in camp and have to scare it away.

Know how to respond to a black bear

If you do find yourself too close to a black bear and it either hasn’t seen you or doesn’t seem interested, keep your distance—300 feet if possible—and cautiously vacate the area. If the bear has meandered into your campsite or close to you on a trail, however, you’ll have to take action.

“Let the bear know this isn’t a place where it’s welcome,” Ahrens says. “Let it know this is our home, not your home; our food, not your food.”

That can mean carrying bear spray if it makes you feel more protected, but often, simply making loud noises will be enough to scare away a black bear. Jump up and down, wave your arms, and yell or make noise with pots and pans, airhorns, or whistles. If that doesn’t work, throw small rocks at the bear as you shout. This is unlikely to seriously harm the bear, but it will be enough to make it uncomfortable and send the message that it is not welcome.

Or, opt for Ahren’s favorite scare tactic: fireworks. Small firecrackers that make lots of noise are useful tools for convincing a black bear to move along and are less lethal than guns, which are almost always unnecessary as black bears infrequently display aggressive and predatory behavior. But he reserves these mostly for developed campsites, as firecrackers are a wildfire hazard if you’re in a fire-prone area.

Learn from your mistakes

When you’ve successfully ushered a black bear out of your space, don’t just go back to bed or continue on your way. Assess the situation and what might have caused the encounter to begin with. Ask yourself what you did wrong and how you can prevent the bear from coming back, Ahrens says.

That involves learning lessons from irresponsible behavior. For example, did you leave your food in the middle of camp while you hiked down to a water hole? Did you dump food scraps in the fire pit? Throw fruit peels into the woods? These are all things that can encourage black bears to get too comfortable around humans. And when that happens and a bear becomes a regular nuisance—or worse, an aggressive nuisance—rangers may have to euthanize it.

There’s no denying that it’s exciting to see black bears in nature, but they are wild animals and they need their space. Remain cautious when hiking or camping in bear country and do your part to protect yourself and the bears. “You have to respect them,” Ahrens says, matter-of-factly. “They’re bears.”

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Hiking with kids can be tough. They get worn out, throw tantrums, feel bored, and discover poison ivy with unparalleled dexterity. They require constant supervision. But they also develop new skills, satisfy their endless curiosity, and experience independence when they spend time outdoors. For many, that’s more than reason enough to hit the trails with young ones.

But heading into the wild with children requires a bit more planning and preparation than setting off on your own. Don’t let that deter you. This season, follow these guidelines to start a hiking ritual that the whole family can enjoy.

Suit up

This may not come as a surprise, but the best way to prepare for hiking with kids is to make sure everyone has the right clothing and gear. “Set them up for success,” says Amelia Mayer, mother of five and founder of outdoor parenting blog Tales of a Mountain Mama. And success starts with a solid foundation: sturdy, closed-toed shoes. Children especially should have shoes that fit well, are comfortable, and will protect their toes from rocks and stings. Bonus points if they’re also waterproof so your kiddos can stomp in puddles or shallow creeks without fear of soggy socks. Skimp on this vital piece of footwear and you’ll pay for it when you start hearing complaints about blisters or sore feet before you even get to the trailhead.

Beyond boots, dress your kids in layers—just as you would yourself—so you can adjust for changing temperatures and conditions. Synthetic fabrics are usually the best as they dry quickly, which means they won’t stay wet for long if you happen upon a lake or stream and the kids want to play in the water. And don’t forget the accessories: hats, sunglasses, and scarves all protect sensitive skin from the elements.

Your comfort matters, too. If you’ll be using slings or child carriers on your hikes, test them out and break them in around the house before you head outdoors. That way you’ll be able to adjust your gear beforehand to ensure it’s comfortable and so your little ones will have an opportunity to get used to it.

Be prepared

When it’s time to pack up, you’ll need to make sure backpacks are stocked and you and the children are prepared for a day (or at least a few hours) outdoors. “Snacks. Snacks are key,” Mayer says. In fact, she recommends special treats that your kids only get when they’re hiking, which makes the activity something they’ll look forward to.

It’s just as important to make sure everyone has plenty of water and is sipping regularly. Check in once in a while to ask when was the last time they took a big gulp. Bring along survival tools like emergency whistles, plus sunscreen and bug repellent, too. And if there’s a real little one in your crew, let them bring their favorite stuffed animal if it makes them feel better about getting outside to hike. Even better, if your children are older than three, Mayer recommends getting them their own small backpack so they can carry their own snacks and supplies, which creates a sense of ownership and pride.

Have a destination in mind

Like many adults, children are often goal-oriented, meaning they like to have a mission or a destination before they start out on a trek. Simply pointing out a lake or a viewpoint on a map can give them an incentive to keep going when they start to feel tired and a sense of accomplishment when they arrive. Plan to have lunch or a snack there, too, so the kids can rest and recharge before starting the hike out.

Lakes aren’t your kid’s thing? Tailor your hikes to what they’re interested in. “One of the biggest things is knowing what kids like,” says Linda Veress, a spokesperson for Yellowstone National Park. If they like waterfalls, geothermal activity, or rocks, look for trails that involve those elements. They’ll be more likely to get excited about an excursion if they know there’s something they’re interested in up ahead. Just make sure to leave everything as it was when you arrived, a good Leave No Trace principle.

Keep them safe

Once you get outside, safety should be your main priority. That starts with packing a well-stocked first aid kit, even for short day hikes. Scraped knees and bumped heads can happen anywhere and can cut a trip short if you don’t have the tools to manage them. Bandages, children’s ibuprofen, and bite and sting relief are just a few things you should always keep on hand.

It’s also important to keep an extra-close eye on children when near potentially dangerous natural features such as cliffs, lakes, waterfalls, and active geothermal areas like those in Yellowstone. Make sure kids know to stay close to you and on the trail at all times.

Ensure they know how to react to wildlife, too. Last year at Yellowstone, a 9-year-old girl was one of many who crept too close to a bison near Old Faithful. When the animal got irritated, it charged, made contact with the girl, and threw her in the air. Terrifying situations like these are why Veress insists that everyone, especially children, should stay at least 25 yards away from animals like bison, elk, and deer and 100 yards away from bears and wolves. You should also teach kids not to yell or throw things at wildlife, but to treat them with respect, maintain a safe distance, and never feed wild animals, including birds and squirrels. And when in territories where bears, moose, mountain lions or other predatory creatures live, keep children within arms reach.

Be ready to improvise

If the little ones start getting antsy before you reach your goal, don’t panic. “It’s OK to stop and reevaluate or distract,” Mayer says. Take a few minutes to explore a cave, build a dam, follow some tracks—whatever interests your child and re-energizes them for the hike. Carry on when they’re ready, but know that sometimes plans will have to change. Occasionally, hikes are too hard, too long, or kids are just too tired. It’s alright to call it a day and head back to the car.

That said, keep your child’s abilities in mind when considering a trail. Know what they are capable of and plan accordingly. It’s difficult for kids to enjoy time outdoors if the trail is too hard. “Tailor the right hike to the right kid,” Veress says.

Make it a learning experience

Some kids may need more than snacks and the promise of playtime in a cool stream to keep them entertained on the trail. In that case, Veress recommends fostering a sense of learning and adventure. Bring pocketed vests to stuff with little treasures like fallen leaves (but make sure to leave behind larger items for other kids to discover), magnifying glasses, their own snacks, or discovery kits that will help them identify insects or plants. Buy or print out nature bingo sheets and play as you hike, looking for animal tracks, types of trees, or colorful flowers.

And don’t be afraid to slow down to let children explore. “Let them stop and examine that bug, climb that stump, and let their imaginations run wild. They live in a different world than adults and it’s wondrous to be able to share it with them,” Veress says. “Sometimes adults get too focused on getting from point A to point B and lose focus on the journey.”

National parks make learning outdoors easy with age-appropriate activity books available in visitor centers, many of which offer an opportunity to learn about the park while earning a junior ranger badge, an extra incentive for hitting the trail. “It gives them a purpose,” Veress says. National parks, as well as many state parks, also offer ranger programs with hands-on education so kids and adults can learn about everything from rock formations to native wildlife. So if you’re visiting, check the program schedule in advance or at a visitor center and schedule your outings around guided hikes or programs.

Create incentives

We mentioned how setting goals can encourage kids to forge ahead, but sometimes you’ve got to get a little more basic. Sometimes that means bribing young children with Skittles during a long hike like Veress did when her kids were young. And sometimes that means promising a treat after the hike is over. Mayer recommends rewarding intrepid explorers with ice cream or a fun post-hike activity like swimming so they have one more reason to keep a positive attitude and shoot for the finish line. “I’m not above bribing,” Mayer says. “Sometimes kids need a little incentive.”

Hiking with other families or letting your kids invite a friend along is also a great idea, Mayer says, especially if your family is new to outdoor activities. The presence of other kids can create positive peer pressure that encourages children to keep pushing forward and challenging one another.

Get outside

“Kids need the challenge of the outdoors,” Mayer says. Time outside provides an active environment for learning where kids can experience self-confidence and self-awareness while they’re introduced to new challenges. But it’s often easier said than done. “We believe parenting outside is easier, but it can seem hard at first to get out the door,” Mayer says.

It may take time to make it the new normal, so start small. Even 15 minutes outside makes a difference. Going hiking early in your child’s life will cue them in that hiking is simply what you do as a family, but if it’s too late for that, focus on making each outing a family experience—something the whole clan does together. Stay positive and encouraging, and even if they fight you the first few times, stick with it and you’ll be a family that hikes together on the regular.

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Most hikers and campers have at least one torn and tattered piece of gear they refuse to let go. Those are the items that tell the stories of what we’ve seen, where we’ve been, and the muddy canyons and thorny bushes we’ve gone through to get there.

But just because a beloved jacket or tent has seen better days doesn’t mean it should go in the trash. In fact, you can often repurpose your old gear by using it to create something new. This has the simultaneous benefits of giving new life to a valuable item, saving you cash, and keeping perfectly usable materials out of the landfill.

Good for you, your wallet, and the environment

New gear is expensive, and so are the materials to make your own. So it only makes sense to save yourself potentially hundreds of dollars in new equipment by repurposing and salvaging what you can from items that seem to have fulfilled their purpose.

But it’s not only your bank account you’ll be doing a favor—there’s also the waste factor. Synthetic materials like those often used in technical clothing and gear are, well, synthetic, which means they don’t decompose like natural fabrics. When you dispose of them, they pile up in landfills, overflowing them and hurting the environment..

The average American throws away 70 pounds of clothing and other textiles every year, so if more crafty outdoors people chose repurposing over trashing, it could make a big difference.

And while saving money and helping the environment are great reasons to preserve buckles, belts, and fabric, you might find yourself repurposing worn items for more sentimental reasons. Our gear has helped us get through mountains, valleys, and everything in between—no wonder it’s hard for us to let go. But with a little creativity, you don’t actually have to.

“It’s cool to give old things new life and a new story to tell,” says Chase Anderson, program coordinator of the Outdoor Product Design and Development department at Utah State University.

And if there’s anything outdoor people love, it’s a good story.

Repairing vs. repurposing

Before you deconstruct a perfectly adequate piece of gear in order to salvage its parts, make sure the item cannot be repaired. Sometimes washing or re-waterproofing items like tents and rain jackets, or patching small holes in sleeping bags or puffer coats, can make them last months or years longer.

Still, sometimes, it’s time to call it—your beloved stuff sack or backpack is worn beyond repair. You might think all you can do is toss it, but there are likely many parts and pieces that are in good working order and perfectly usable on other outdoor gear or DIY projects.

Identifying useful materials

Before you drop your gear in the garbage, give it a once-over and look for anything you might be able to use—you’re looking for things like large squares of fabric from a tent floor or rainfly, the internal frame of a backpack, zippers and buckles from a hip pack, and straps and webbing from an old pair of sandals. You can often salvage zipper pulls, metal poles, bungees, hook-and-loop strips, and elastics, too.

After you’ve stripped your items down, see if you can recycle any of what’s left. Often, aluminum or titanium tent poles, broken plastic buckles, or metal bits and pieces fall into this category. Still, we recommend you check with your local waste authority before dropping items in the recycling bin.

Even if you can’t use some (or any) of the parts you’ve collected, consider donating them to programs like USU’s outdoor product design and development department—which teaches students design principles, aesthetics, and technical skills in the outdoor product design space—or a local repair or craft shop.

Develop your skills

After you’ve stockpiled a few materials and you’re ready to start creating new from old, you might be tempted to jump into a project, but Anderson recommends first building a skill set that will help ensure success.

Sewing is a big one, but don’t think you have to be an expert to make gear. “Start simple,” Anderson says. “And slowly move up to items with zippers, or buckles, or multiple seams.” That includes things like jackets or backpacks.

In general, a solid base of tools and skills is never a bad idea. YouTube is a great resource for learning how to do everything from sewing to tying knots. If you’re not much of an online learner, check out your local craft supply stores and colleges—they usually offer courses for students of any age.

Project ideas

If you’re just developing sewing skills, don’t start by making your own waterproof multi-pocket jacket. Instead, practice by using fabric from retired gear or clothing to patch holes or tears in newer items. Then you can move on to simple projects, like cutting a pattern out of a threadbare base layer and sewing a face warmer. Anderson’s students have made beanies by cutting and sewing a pattern out of an old sweater, or crafted covers for ski goggles and sunglasses out of jacket lining and an old bungee cord or shoelace.

Once you’ve mastered basic skills and projects, try your hand at more advanced endeavors like sewing stuff sacks, replacing zippers, crafting simple gaiters, or making a hip pack.

And don’t be afraid to think outside the box. Anderson has seen students replace malfunctioning zippers on jackets with buttons or snaps, and come up with an idea for a new chalk bag after digging through boxes of scraps.

I recently had to retire an old backpack. Most of the fabric was worn, torn or tattered, and the bits that were still in good condition were too small to use for other projects. However, I was able to remove several yards worth of straps and webbing, a dozen or more buckles and D-rings, some usable elastic, foam, and the lid of the backpack. I cleaned many of these pieces and used them with some fabric from a leaky inflatable outdoor lounge to make a simple ultralight daypack that would have likely cost me around $50.

One thing to keep in mind, though—never use repurposed materials to make any gear or equipment meant to save your life. This includes items like climbing harnesses, safety ropes, and avalanche airbags. These items must be in perfect condition to perform properly, so you should always buy them new.

Tips and tricks

Obviously, the idea is to make something new using as much recycled material as you can, but if you start a project and don’t have everything you need, don’t hesitate to visit your local craft or art supply store to get it. And if you’re worried about mismatched fabrics, don’t be—part of the beauty of repurposed products is their uniqueness and the story behind it. And if that doesn’t convince you, consider outdoor brands like Cotopaxi, which are famous for their beautiful, mismatched gear made with fabric scraps from their other products. If they can get away with it, so can you.

As for the actual making, Anderson recommends you design your project in cardboard or paper as you practice and experiment with forms and construction. Don’t jump straight into using the expensive materials before you know what you’re creating.

And if you’re struggling for ideas or aren’t sure where to start, find inspiration in the outdoor community by searching for influencers and websites (like Patagonia WornWear or gear repair shops) that celebrate up-cycled and repurposed gear. Browsing through their feeds will definitely help you see products and materials in a new way.

Once you start seeing scraps not for what they were, but for what they can be, you’ll not only save cash on new and original gear and keep non-recyclable materials out of the landfill, you’ll also be giving the items you love a new life.

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Snacks are essential for every hiker’s backpack. They keep your energy up, your mind focused, and give you something to do while contemplating the majesty of Mother Nature.

But store-bought snacks and bars are expensive, and often contain huge amounts of sugar or preservatives that can seem excessive, even to someone walking for three to four hours straight. And then there’s the wrapping. Each snack is individually packaged to make it easier to transport, but ironically, this just means more trash for you to carry around until you find a garbage can.

Making your own trail snacks, though, is much better. You’ll take better control of what you’re eating and forgo a lot of unnecessary wrappers. And the best way to do it is easy—dehydrating your favorite foods.

Ways to dehydrate

There are three main ways to dehydrate your food: in the oven, with a dehydrator, or by building your own dehydrator.

Pretty much everyone has an oven, so it’s no surprise that this appliance is one of the most commonly suggested dehydrating tools. Simply heat your oven to the lowest setting—often 175 or 200 degrees Fahrenheit—and put your snacks inside. Check on them every 30 to 60 minutes to make sure they aren’t burning or becoming too tough to eat.

Compared to the other two methods, an oven gets the job done fastest. But since it uses heat, the food often gets cooked during the dehydration process. This is fine unless you prefer to eat mostly raw foods.

Dehydrators, meanwhile, come in all shapes and sizes, cost between $30-$150, and usually allow you to dry a plethora of ingredients at once. Using one is simple and, typically, a hands-off process. Other than preparing the ingredients, setting a timer, and pressing the start button, there’s really not much else to do. It’s so low-effort that, unlike other methods, you can leave the house, let the machine run overnight, or stash it in a corner while it does its thing.

Dehydrators preserve foods by warming them—usually to temperatures that aren’t that hot—and blowing air to remove moisture without fully cooking them. This is why you can still consider whatever you’re dehydrating to be raw food.

The third, more radically DIY method for drying out your food involves creating your own dehydrator with a box fan, clean air conditioner filters, and dehydrator sheets.

Simply lay the unplugged box fan on the ground with one edge propped up 4-6 inches, its power off and airflow directed toward the ceiling. Then, place one of the air filters on top. On a dehydrator sheet or plastic canvas—the kind kids use for needlepoint crafts—spread out your food and place another dehydrator sheet on top. Put a second air filter on top of that.

If you’d like to dry more than one layer of food, place another dehydrator sheet on top of the uppermost air filter, followed by one more layer of food, another dehydrator sheet, and another air filter—you’ll be able to stack up to four layers of food on top of the fan in this manner. Use bungee cords to secure it all to the fan, plug it in, and let it run.

Since it doesn’t involve any heat, this method may take up to two days. Check on your food roughly every 2-3 hours.

Tips for dehydrating food

There are a few good ways to ensure you end up with the best batch of homemade dehydrated trail snacks. For starters, you can dehydrate multiple types of foods at the same time—as long as they require the same cooking temperature.

Foods will dry at different rates—even if they are similar in size—so remove the pieces that dry first if you can. If you’re using an oven, doing so will prevent them from burning. You can also use this knowledge to your advantage by making thicker pieces out of foods that dry more quickly. And when you arrange your ingredients, make sure they don’t overlap, as this will slow the drying process.

When a batch is complete—meaning it’s no longer sticky or spongy—store the snacks in an airtight container to keep them from being exposed to moisture and humidity. This will prevent your food from spoiling. The drier the food is, the longer it will last, and storing snacks in the fridge or freezer will extend the life of your snacks even further.

Dehydrator Recipes

Nearly every food can be dehydrated, including beef strips, tofu, and even pancakes. The most common items dried out for trail snacks are meat, fruit, and vegetables, as they pack a highly nutritional punch and taste great after the process.

You can try combinations of your favorite foods and create custom trail snacks perfect for you, but if you need a little inspiration, here are three recipes to get you started.

Fruit leather

A healthy staple on the trail, fruit leather is an excellent way to get vital nutrients when you don’t want to carry the weight of fresh fruit.

Ingredients

• ½ cup of raspberries, fresh or thawed from frozen
• ½ cup of blueberries, fresh or thawed from frozen
• 1 cup of unsweetened applesauce
• A pinch salt

Preparation

1. Puree your food. Put all the ingredients in a food processor or blender and run it until you’ve got a puree. If you don’t like raspberries or blueberries, you can replace them with the same amount of any other fruit.

2. Dehydrate. If you’re using an oven, heat it to 200 degrees or as low as your oven temperature will go. Line a baking tray with parchment paper or a non-stick silicone mat. You’ll want to make sure your tray has a raised edge all the way around to prevent any liquid from escaping. Pour the puree onto the tray and spread it evenly. It should be around a quarter of an inch thick. Place it in the oven and cook it for about four hours, or until the leather is no longer sticky. Remove it from the oven, then slice it into strips between 1 to 2 inches wide. Roll it up or keep it flat—your preference—and store it in an airtight container.

If you’re using a dehydrator, you’ll also want a tray with edges. Wipe the surface with a small amount of oil to prevent the puree from sticking and pour the mashed-up fruit into the tray. Spread it evenly to about a quarter of an inch thick. Dry it at 130 to 140 degrees for four to six hours—the time will depend on how much puree you put on the tray and the amount of water in the fruit you used. The process will be done when the puree is leathery and no longer sticky. Take it out of the tray, then slice it into strips between 1 and 2 inches wide. Roll it up or keep it flat, and store it in an airtight container.

Kale chips

Kale chips are a great, ultra-light way to get your veggies on the trail. Crispy and flavorful, they’re also easy to dehydrate yourself—and a lot cheaper than the store-bought stuff.

Ingredients

• 1 bunch of fresh kale with the stems removed
• 1 tablespoon of olive oil
• 1 teaspoon of salt
• (Optional) 2 tablespoons of nutritional yeast
• (Optional) 1 teaspoon of crushed red pepper
• (Optional) Other seasonings to taste

Preparation

1. Tear the kale leaves into pieces. Keep them about the size of tortilla chips. Rinse and dry.

2. Season the kale. Mix the olive oil, salt, and seasonings, then pour the mixture over the kale. Use your hands to massage it into all the nooks and crannies.

3. Dehydrate. If you’re using an oven, heat it to 300 degrees. Arrange the kale on a baking tray and cook it for 10 to 15 minutes. Keep a close eye on the kale while it’s in the oven, as it will turn from green to black in a matter of minutes. When the edges of the leaves begin to brown, remove them from the oven. Allow the chips to cool, and store them in a rigid airtight container to prevent them from getting crushed.

If you’re using a dehydrator, transfer the kale to one of its trays and dry at 125 degrees for four to six hours, or until the kale is completely dry and crispy. Remove it from the dehydrator and store it in a rigid airtight container to prevent it from getting crushed.

Mushroom Jerky

Jerky is a trail food staple. Ditch the expensive beef varieties and try this easy and flavorful mushroom jerky instead.

Ingredients

• 4 Portobello mushroom caps sliced into ¼-inch strips
• ½ cup of your favorite barbecue sauce
• 1 tablespoon of olive oil
• 1 tablespoon of apple cider vinegar
• ¼ teaspoon of salt

Preparation

1. Make the marinade. Mix all ingredients except the mushrooms in a flat-bottomed dish.

2. Add mushrooms. Mix everything to ensure an even coating.

3. Marinate the mushroom strips. You can let them sit for two hours, but ideally, you’ll leave them to marinate overnight. When they’re done, remove the mushroom strips from the marinade and shake them lightly to remove any excess sauce.

4. Dehydrate. If you’re using an oven, arrange the mushroom strips on a baking tray and cook them at 200 degrees for two to three hours, or until they’re dry and chewy. Store them in an airtight container.

If you’re using a dehydrator, arrange the mushroom strips on a tray or two and dry at 145 degrees for four to six hours, or until they are dry and chewy. Store them in an airtight container.

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For February, we’re focusing on the body parts that shape us, oxygenate us, and power us as we take long walks on the beach. Bony bonafide bones. These skeletal building blocks inspire curiosity and spark fear in different folks—we hope our stories, covering everything from surgeries and supplements to good old-fashioned boning, will only do the first. Once you’ve thoroughly blasted your mind with bone facts, check out our previous themed months: muscle and fat.

Picture this: While descending a precarious slope, you lose your balance, land awkwardly on a rock, and your foot wrenches sideways. Immediately, you hear a distinct cracking sound—one you’ll probably never be able to forget—and you fall to the ground in pain. What moments ago was a pleasant weekend hike has officially become a lot less enjoyable: you’re in the wilderness with a broken bone.

While an injury like this means the end to an excursion, it’s rarely a life-and-death situation. In fact, with the right training, the appropriate tools, and a level head, you can make it back to civilization in one piece and with a hell of a story to tell.

Stay calm and assess the situation

The most common musculoskeletal injury in the outdoors is a sprained ankle, but fractured or broken bones are also a concern, especially ankles, wrists, and ribs. If this happens to you or a fellow hiker in the backcountry, stay calm and evaluate the situation. It is the job of whoever’s not injured to take control and decide the best course of action to keep everyone safe.

“Try not to make more patients,” says Dr. Martin Musi, fellowship director of wilderness medicine at the University of Colorado and director of the Diploma in Mountain Medicine of the Andes.

But before being able to assess the situation, you’ll need to get closer—and in the wild, that’s often easier said than done. First, you’ll need to make sure it’s safe for you to approach the injured person. If they’ve tumbled down a slippery slope or wrenched an ankle in a boulder field, for example, make certain you won’t succumb to the same fate by leaping after them. Anchor yourself to a sturdy tree with a rope before navigating a steep decline, or crawl slowly on your hands and knees if there’s a chance you could trip and fall as well.

Once it’s safe, approach the person with caution and check their vitals—make sure they can breathe and that they’re lucid and aware. Next, look for blood—if there is any, protect yourself and the patient by using gloves. You should always have a pair in your first aid kit, but if you don’t, you can improvise them with plastic bags. Try to control the bleeding by applying pressure with a clean piece of fabric or cloth. Once you’ve determined the person is stable, move them to a more secure location if necessary.

Finally, take stock of the severity of the injury—which is not always easy, according to Shana Tarter, EMT and assistant director of NOLS Wilderness Medicine. What you may think is a fracture may be a sprain, strain, or a dislocation, or vice versa. Unless there’s obvious angulation (when you see a limb bent in a way it shouldn’t be) or an open fracture (a broken bone protruding through the skin) you often can’t be sure if it’s a simple fracture or something else.

But when it comes to treating any musculoskeletal injury, it often doesn’t matter what you call it—keeping the person safe and stable is the priority. Take your time, keep everybody calm, and proceed to treatment.

Attend to the injury

Next, make sure the person doesn’t have additional injuries. If they do, always tend to the most serious or life-threatening first. If you’re dealing with a single musculoskeletal injury, start by performing a complete assessment of the wounded area—this involves checking circulation, sensation, and motion.

To get a good look, remove anything that might impede circulation—this includes rings, bracelets, accessories, and boots. Keep in mind that even if they aren’t causing problems now, they eventually might. When removing shoes or boots, do so carefully by loosening them up as much as you can.

First, check for a pulse below the injured area to make sure blood is flowing correctly. If the arm is hurt, for example, try the the wrist; or if the ankle is the issue, try the foot. If you find a pulse, that means circulation is good. If you see any bruising, swelling, visible bones protruding from the skin, or any unnatural colors in the injured extremity, this could be a sign of a circulation issue. These may cause complications like tissue and nerve damage if the person doesn’t get medical care in a timely manner.

Then, check for sensation above and below the injury by tapping or lightly scratching the person’s skin. If there’s a pulse and no numbness or tingling, it means nerves are likely intact. If not, and you don’t possess the proper wilderness medicine training, a speedy evacuation becomes the top priority before nerve or tissue damage sets in.

Lastly, find out if the person can move or put any weight on the injured area. There will likely be pain, but if they can move it, it means they may be able to help get themselves back to the trailhead.

If there’s visible angulation, and you’ve been trained in wilderness first aid, Tarter recommends attempting to put the extremity back in its normal anatomical alignment. Doing so will most likely improve circulation, sensation, and motion. If that is the case, you can make your way to civilization safely and calmly. But if you can’t be certain the bone is broken, you lack training, or straightening the limb doesn’t improve circulation and sensation, emergency evacuation becomes the absolute priority. Leave this procedure to the trained professionals.

Immobilize, manage pain, and make an exit

If the injured extremity is usable, you may be able to stick to managing symptoms, like pain, and helping the person hike back to the trailhead. Treat symptoms by administering painkillers like ibuprofen. If you’re hiking in the winter or at high altitudes, you can also use snow or ice in a bag or bandana to alleviate pain and swelling. Immersing a limb in a cold creek will also work, but only for brief periods of time so the person doesn’t end up with frostbite.

But if it’s not usable, you’ll need to make a splint so the patient doesn’t hurt themselves worse. Some first-aid kits include a packable splint, but a little improvisation can work, too. Use sticks, trekking poles, even the suspension system from your backpack (if it has one), to create a rigid structure around the injured limb. Thoroughly pad the space between the skin and the splint with clothing or gauze, then use elastic bandages, strips of clothing, or paracord to hold the splint snugly in place.

Immobilize the joint above and below the injury, but make sure to fix it in a natural position. If the forearm is the issue, make sure the wrist and elbow are both immobilized but that the elbow is bent and the hand rests in a curved position.

It’s important to ensure the splint is sturdy and durable in case of inclement weather, but don’t use tape unless absolutely necessary—if the splint becomes too tight or uncomfortable, having it secured with tape won’t allow you to easily adjust it. After splinting, check for a pulse below the injury once more to ensure you haven’t worsened the situation by cutting off blood flow before you make your way back.

Open fracture: a hiker’s true nightmare

The type of broken bone people often fear most is an open fracture—and for good reason. Fortunately, these kinds of fractures, especially those that involve dangerous amounts of blood loss, are fairly uncommon in the backcountry. In fact, the biggest risk with an open fracture is the risk of infection.

To prevent that from happening, use an irrigation syringe—the kind found in most comprehensive first aid kits—to squirt clean, drinkable water on the end of the exposed bone, rinsing it clean. If you don’t have an irrigation syringe on hand, improvise by pouring or squirting water from a water bottle. Then, only if you have the training, attempt to straighten the broken bone and get it back into the skin before you create a splint.

If you don’t have any first aid training in this area, cover the exposed bone end with a moist piece of gauze so it doesn’t dry out, wrap the area with a bandage, splint the limb, and evacuate. You will want to get the person to a hospital as quickly as possible.

Get help

After you’ve assessed the injury, made a splint, and treated some of the patient’s symptoms, it’s time to figure out how to get help. If the affected limb is even remotely unusable, that means leaving the backcountry is the next step.

If you have an emergency beacon or satellite phone, use it to call for help. If Search and Rescue (SAR) is available, give them your location; if not, call to inform authorities that you’re hiking out and need help. If the trailhead isn’t far and the person can walk, even slowly, help them hike out, keeping a close eye on them and regularly checking for circulation issues.

As Tarter points out, self-evacuation, if at all possible, is often the safest option, as it doesn’t put rescuers or fellow hikers at risk. Besides, Musi says, SAR may not be available in all locations and circumstances, so attempting to be self-reliant is often the best course of action.

If the person can’t walk, they must remain in place while you or someone who’s able goes out looking for help. Make sure they are comfortable, in a safe place, and have plenty of food, water, and shelter. And before your hike out to get help, make sure you know their location as accurately as possible—you will need to describe their position and surroundings to rescuers, and every detail counts.

If you’re the injured party and hiking alone, use tools like a whistle, mirror (to reflect light as an emergency beacon), or even a small fire to signal that you need help.

Get training

Before you attempt to straighten or treat a bone you think may be broken, make sure you get the proper training. In fact, according to Musi, anyone who often treks out into the backcountry should have some level of first aid training.

If you spend any amount of time in wilderness situations, sign up for a backcountry first-aid training course from an organization like NOLS or at an education center near you. That way, if you find yourself in a situation where you or a companion must deal with a broken limb far from medical care, you’ll know how to treat it and make it out of the woods in one piece.

The post You broke a bone in the middle of nowhere. Now what? appeared first on Popular Science.

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Funding for parks, both local and national, seems to always be on the chopping block—when the government has to tighten its belt, money to protect and preserve the great outdoors is often one of the first things to go. And while you may not be able to donate enough to make up for the deficit, you could probably donate a bit of your time by planning a volunteer day at a city, state, or national park near you.

It’s not as hard as you might think, and you don’t have to be part of an environmental organization to give a hand to the the natural spaces you hold dear.

Determine what you want to do, and where

Putting together an afternoon or weekend event that benefits parks starts with deciding where you want to volunteer, and how. Selecting the location isn’t tricky.

Joe Gibson knows a bit about rallying up volunteers. He is the community coordinator at Los Angeles-based apparel company Parks Project, leads regular volunteer days organized by the company—everything from cleanup projects to trail maintenance and habitat restoration. When it comes to deciding what parks to contact, Gibson says he occasionally searches for big blocks of green on Google Maps.

Of course, your choice doesn’t have to be so arbitrary. You could pick a park that you know could use your attention, or one you have fond memories of. You can also keep it simple by choosing a location close to home. But deciding where you’ll be working is only half the battle. You’ll also need to decide what you’ll be doing.

“Picking up trash is great and easy to do, but it’s not always the best use of a group of volunteers’ time,” Gibson says. This is especially true in national parks that are often well maintained and cared for.

Groups of people can knock out more involved projects that a single person couldn’t do on their own—habitat restoration and trail maintenance, for example, are great ideas. Just keep in mind that these sorts of efforts are often on ranger or local government project lists and require professional input and instruction to complete—especially if delicate ecosystems are concerned. Parks can often provide the assistance of an on-site volunteer coordinator or ranger for these kinds of projects and others, such as gathering and redistributing seeds or clearing trails.

Whether you plan on one of these types of initiatives or come up with something completely different, you’ll want to get in touch with park staff to coordinate and help you plan and prepare. To find the right person, check the park’s website. Look for titles like “volunteer coordinator” or “stewardship manager”—they’re the people you’ll want to get in touch with. If you don’t see those or similar titles, use the general contact information and your message will be forwarded to the right person.

Promote your initiative

After you’ve decided on the park and project, it’s time to promote the event. If your goal is simply to get a group of friends and family involved, Facebook event invitations and informal emails will probably be enough to rally the troops. If you’re hoping to get a larger community involved, however, you’ll need to spread the word.

Start with flyers, online event pages on sites like Facebook or Meetup, and reach out to local news organizations to promote the outing, starting about a month in advance for outlets with publication deadlines. Two weeks leading up to the event, touch base on your social media event pages—people tend to forget things, even though they may be excited to participate. And if you’re lucky enough to receive an overwhelmingly positive response, don’t go for that victory lap just yet.

“There is such a thing as too many volunteers,” Gibson says. “It won’t feel meaningful if there’s not enough work to do.” Though it’s a bit counterintuitive, “the more, the merrier” doesn’t apply when it comes to planning a volunteer day, so setting a limit of participants is always a good idea.

Think about the ideal number of people you’ll need for your project, and then consider the drop-out rate which, for this kind of event, Gibson says could be anywhere between 30-50 percent. For example, if the total amount of volunteers cannot exceed 20, only provide up to 30 slots for people to sign up.

Organize and execute

Whether big or small, when it’s go-time, organization is key to pulling off a successful park volunteer day. Start by clearly communicating details like time, date, and location, so volunteers know where to go, what to bring, and precisely what they’re in for. Consider that some parks may not have cell service, so designate a clear meeting point where people can easily find you or any park coordinators.

Make sure everyone knows who’s in charge. If it’s a small park cleanup, that might be you—introduce yourself to everyone, and wear a name tag and distinctive work vest. But if you’re working at a large city, state or national park initiative, also make sure to point out the ranger or coordinator in charge so volunteers know who to go to with questions or concerns. Then, as the organizer, make yourself available as the middleman between volunteers and park employees to ensure the event runs smoothly.

When it comes to tools, parks may be able to provide what you need, so check with them before you ask anybody to bring any equipment or supplies like trash bags and gloves.

The key to success

While coordinating a volunteer day may seem a pretty straightforward task, Gibson says it involves more than planning and organization to do so in a way that is meaningful and fulfilling for everyone involved—it also requires information. “It’s really important to spend time explaining why you’re doing the project in the first place,” he says.

That’s because understanding why the work is important is what makes an event worthwhile, even more than personal gratification (usually in the form of warm fuzzies after doing something good for a beloved park) does. It also creates volunteers who will want to participate again in the future, because they understand that their actions can make an impact regionally and globally.

That doesn’t mean you have to be the one with all the knowledge and know-how. Often, it will come from a park ranger or an experienced trail technician—an expert who can explain why cigarettes on the beach are harmful to more than wildlife, or how a particular invasive species is damaging the local ecosystem. Having a knowledgeable coordinator onsite to explain why your team is harvesting and redistributing native seed pods is the key to not only having a productive event, but creating a deeper, more meaningful connection to the outdoors.

Make it happen

You don’t have to have special experience or training to plan a park volunteer day, and there are no age requirements to participate. A park maintenance or cleanup day is easy, fun, and a great excuse not only to spend time outdoors, but to care for the public spaces around you. And a little planning, organization, and perspective are all you need to make it happen and facilitate a positive change in the world around you.

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A backpacker hikes through the woods, feet crunching through snow, working up a sweat as she trudges miles into the wilderness to set up camp. In the evening, with her clothes still damp from the day’s exertion, she can’t stop shivering and her muscles grow stiff.

A cross-country skier glides through a winter wonderland, amazed by the sparkling snow and lonely landscape, when his skis crash through a frozen lake. As he gasps for breath, trying in vain to stay afloat, the icy water shocks his system and he feels like his heart has stopped.

As their body temperatures drop, hypothermia sets in. Unless they know what to do, it’s only a matter of time before both the hiker and the skier lose consciousness and succumb to the cold.

Wet or dry, 800 people died in 2015 due to hypothermia in the U.S. alone, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. That’s more than heat-related deaths, which were less than half that number. Knowing how to avoid hypothermia, and what to do if you or your companions ever face it, is key whenever you are in the outdoors.

Understanding hypothermia

Hypothermia is more than just a chill—it’s a serious condition that can lead to heart failure and death, though probably not as quickly as you think.

Normally, our thermoregulation system—powered by the hypothalamus—balances out our body temperature automatically to keep things around 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. Hypothermia happens when there’s a significant drop in our core temperature, and our body is incapable of making up for the heat it loses.

And while heat loss is directly related to ambient temperature (think thermometer readings), other conditions increase your risk exponentially. Cold, wet, and wind all play a role in unleashing hypothermia, but wet may be the worst of the three.

Water conducts heat away from the body 25 times faster than air in similar temperatures, and even at that pace, heat loss can be 10 times faster when there’s movement like swimming or rushing water involved. You could die from hypothermia after up to 10 hours of prolonged exposure to cold air in dry conditions, but it would only take one or two hours if you were submerged in cold water.

Know the signs

Gordon Giesbrecht, PhD—also known as Professor Popsicle—is and professor at the Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management at the University of Manitoba, and he knows what to do when cold becomes deadly. For years he’s been subjecting himself and other volunteers to extreme tests (including repeatedly submerging himself in ice cold water) to determine what exposure to extremely low temperatures does to a person. As a result, he’s experienced firsthand how long you have to rescue yourself before cold becomes incapacitating, how long it takes for hypothermia to kick in water and on land, and how dangerous it really is.

According to Giesbrecht, when you first become hypothermic, you’ll just feel cold. The danger begins when that familiar chill turns into an intense shiver that lasts longer than 5 or 10 minutes.

“That’s a sign that your body is losing more heat than you’re producing,” Giesbrecht says.

Then numbness sets in—likely in your fingers and toes first. After that, you’ll feel nothing because your nerve endings and receptors will no longer be functioning properly. As your ability to think and move starts to decrease, you’ll become irritable and find it hard to concentrate. After that, you’ll step into moderate hypothermia territory, where the shivering stops, and loss of consciousness is just around the corner.

It is scary, but getting to this stage doesn’t necessarily mean you’re dead or about to die. Your heart won’t stop beating until your body drops below a core temperature of 82 degrees Fahrenheit. But if you’re alone, your chances of being rescued are slim, and if you’re in the water without a life jacket, you’ll undoubtedly drown.

Stay calm

If you think you might be hypothermic, don’t panic. Instead, remember three things—change your activity, your insulation, or your environment.

“[Altering your] activity will change your body’s heat production, insulation will decrease your heat loss, and your environment will provide shelter,” Giesbrecht explains.

Change your activity by moving—light exercise can make a big difference when it comes to warming up your body. Then, change your insulation by removing wet clothes and adding more layers—wrap yourself in a sleeping bag or blanket if you have it. Lastly, change your environment however you are able, by either going indoors or taking shelter.

If you’re in the wilderness and a car, house or cabin isn’t available, head inside your tent. If you don’t have one of those either, construct a shelter using what’s available to you—a pile of pine boughs will help insulate you from the cold ground if you don’t have a sleeping pad, and a tarp or emergency blanket will protect you from the wind, snow and rain.

Hypothermia in cold water is quicker (and deadlier)

Cold exposure is far more dangerous when water is involved, especially if you are submerged in it. Giesbrecht has done much research on the topic, using himself as a test subject on a regular basis.

What he’s discovered is that in water staying calm is not important: it’s a matter of life or death. “You can die within seconds in cold water, not from hypothermia, but from drowning,” Giesbrecht explains.

When submerged in icy water, the body hyperventilates as it goes through the cold shock response, and if the head goes under before breathing gets under control (which takes about a minute), drowning is a distinct possibility. If you end up in cold water, concentrate on getting your breathing back to normal and keeping your head above water. You’ll lose more body heat than you produce by thrashing around, so try kicking and swimming as little as possible.

In a situation like this, you’ll have 10 minutes before the cold starts to incapacitate your muscles, so as soon as you have your breathing under control, try to get back on the ice using the kick-and-pull method. Put your arms on the ice and kick your legs until your body is horizontal near the water’s surface, then kick as hard as you can, and use your arms to pull yourself along the icy surface until you are out. Roll away from the hole you fell through until you get to thicker, safer ice or solid ground.

This method is easier than pushing or pulling the full weight of your soaked body out of the water when it has already started to go numb or lose the ability to move freely.

Keep it dry, keep it safe

If you’re out in cold weather, follow Giesbrecht’s number one principle: keep water out of your stuff. Store gear in waterproof bags, always have a dry set of clothes, and remember that sweat is the enemy. This is why synthetic fabrics are far superior for outdoor pursuits—they dry much faster than cotton.

The Inuit people have a saying, Giesbrecht recalls: “If you sweat, you die.” Here’s why: You usually start off with too many layers for what you’re about to do, whether it’s ice fishing, skiing, backpacking, or taking a stroll in the woods. Your body temperature starts to rise, and soon enough you’re sweating and uncomfortable, which will prompt you to unzip or remove layers to cool down. Inevitably, you’ll take a break. That’s when you’ll start to feel the chill, which you’ll try to fight by putting cold, sweaty layers back on. Eventually you’ll start working again, and the vicious cycle will continue. The difference is that your body will not be able to maintain a steady temperature anymore, and getting warm will be harder and harder each time.

To avoid this, remember it’s OK to be a little chilly just before any physical activity in the outdoors. You will warm up quickly once you start to move, so don’t be afraid to remove a layer or two before you get too hot and sweaty. If you’re still feeling cold after ten minutes, go ahead and add a layer back on.

How to treat hypothermia

If you or somebody else think you might be hypothermic, don’t wait to take action—if you’ve already lost fine motor skills and can’t do much to warm yourself, a hiking buddy will be invaluable.

Treat a hypothermic patient as gently as possible—keep them horizontal, dry, and insulate them from the elements as much as you can. According to Giesbrecht, in the wilderness, there’s not a lot of things you can do to treat hypothermia—not even a fire—so the next step is figuring out how you’re going to get them to civilization and medical care.

Lastly, if the person is still alert, give them high calorie food or drink like hot chocolate or nut butter—when it comes to heating up the body, calories matter.

Bottom line: always be prepared

“Anytime you walk away from safety, ask yourself two questions: do I have the equipment I need if I have to spend the night in the wilderness, and do I have the skills required?” Giesbrecht says. After all, matches are no good if you don’t know how to light a fire. Instead, always prepare yourself with at least a daypack and a couple of extra layers for any length excursion, and the knowledge of how to use the survival tools within.

And if you ever face a dangerous situation with hypothermia, remember to never lose hope: 95% of searches are over within 24 hours, so if you can survive one night, there’s a good chance you’ll be found and rescued

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Animal attacks are relatively rare, but you still want to be prepared in case you have a bad brush in the backcountry—or even your yard. Adventurer and travel writer Alisha McDarris has the advice you need for grizzly bears, mountain lions, and snake bites. Wild-pig swarms are the latest in her survival series.

When it comes to animals that strike fear into our hearts, bears, sharks, and mountain lions get all the attention. But what about wild pigs? The news rarely publishes stories of encounters with them, even though they’re big, have sharp tusks, and are taking over North America. In fact, there have been more fatalities from wild hogs in the last decade than from sharks.

So, what happens if you really do find 30-50 feral hogs, or, as is more likely, just one, on your property?

Not your average invasive species

Explorers introduced domestic swine and wild boars to North America as early as the 1500s. Eventually, some of the domestic swine got loose and adapted to the outdoors, becoming feral. When those animals interbred with wild boars, a sort of hybrid was created: wild pigs, wild hogs, or wild swine.

Their range has expanded quickly in recent decades, from 18 largely southern and coastal states in 1982 to 35 states today. Now, wild pigs are one of the most destructive species in the US. They sully entire fields of vegetable crops with E. coli, contaminate drinking water, decimate native wildlife and plant species, and transport more than 50 diseases, including rabies, hepatitis E, and brucellosis, an ugly illness that causes recurring flu-like symptoms. Nearly 40 of the swine-held strains can be transmitted to humans.

At the same time, the species’ population, some 5 million and counting, has skyrocketed, largely because of its high rate of fecundity. Wild pigs can breed several times a year and birth up to 12 piglets per litter, making them the fastest reproductive machines of any animal in their weight and size class. They’re also not predated by any larger carnivorous animals, though cougars and alligators will kill one occasionally. On top of that, they’ll eat just about anything.

“I’ve never seen a starving wild pig,” says John Tomecek, assistant professor and extension wildlife specialist at Texas A&M University. Foxes, coyotes, and other wild omnivores, sure, but never pigs. “They are an opportunistic omnivore and will always find a meal,” Tomecek adds.

They’re also not restricted by habitat. While the species prefers shady areas near water in the summer to stay cool—contrary to the popular adage “sweating like a pig,” Tomecek says the animals don’t perspire and therefore have a hard time staying cool—they can be found roaming and thriving in just about any terrain, including the desert.

Attacks are rare

The good news is that most wild pigs would rather flee to safety rather than charge a human. The last fatal pig encounter in the US was in Texas in 1996; there were 14 around the world in 2015 and 7 in 2018.

But much like wild pig numbers themselves, attacks are on the rise. A study done by John J. Mayer, an environmental scientist at Savannah River National Laboratory in South Carolina, found that from 1825 to 2012, 70 percent of confrontations occurred in the 21st century. Of 21 U.S. states with recorded attacks, Texas topped the list, which makes sense, given that the state also has the largest population of wild pigs in the country. Most of the attacks were also in rural areas. That may change, however, as the mammals spread to the suburbs.

And while wild pigs look a lot like their farm-dwelling counterparts, they’re leaner and tougher, with coarser hair and longer tusks. They can weigh up to 350 pounds, be as long as five feet from snout to rump, and run up to 30 miles per hour. They also have excellent vision and are often active after dark, even though they’re not fully nocturnal.

No matter the time of day, your chances of encounter increase while you’re walking a dog, which, according to studies, swine seem to perceive as a threat. Approaching an injured or cornered pig or getting too close to piglets also top the list of things not to do if you’re hoping to avoid a run-in.

What to do in an encounter

When wild pigs do get aggressive, things can turn ugly. The animals tend to charge and maul their victims with their tusks, biting or goring legs and feet. And because they have so much bacteria in their mouths, infection is a serious concern.

To deter an attack upon spotting a hog, give it a wide berth, Tomecek says. Often, this is all that’s required to quell a violent encounter. If you see one nearby, it will likely turn tail and make its own speedy escape. If it doesn’t—possibly because it’s never encountered a human or is content to wallow in a cool, muddy creek bed—just put plenty of space between you and the animal. Whatever you do, don’t try to get close to, feed, pet, take photos of, or provoke the animal.

“If you put them into a situation where they feel threatened, they will step up and defend themselves,” Mayer explains. “If they are determined enough to deal with this perceived threat, they are not going to back off.” Read: If a wild hog wants to protect itself, it’s not letting you get away without a fight.

That said, there are still ways to deescalate the situation. Once the swine starts running toward you, climb a tree, boulder, even a car or dumpster to get out of the animal’s reach. Try and get high: Pigs can’t climb, but large ones can work their way up a tree trunk with their front legs to reach objects that are several feet above the ground.

If there’s nothing tall nearby, turn tail and sprint. You can’t outrun a wild pig, but in a best-case scenario, they’ll think they’ve neutralized the threat and give up chasing. If not, “you’re probably in for a bad day,” Mayer says. Use anything at your disposal—a tripod, walking stick, golf club—to fight back. Do your best to stay on your feet because “if you get knocked down, things get considerably worse real fast,” Mayer adds. Injuries that might have otherwise been relegated to the legs and feet could spread to the torso and face.

Whether or not there’s a physical encounter, report the sighting to your local wildlife-management agency so they can trap or euthanize the invasive species. If you have multiple run-ins (meaning the pigs are turning your backyard into a summer home), contact the same agency for help removing them. Always get yourself some medical attention when coming in contact with the mammals to make sure no pathogens have been transmitted.

“[Feral hogs] are wild animals,” Mayer says—and you should always exercise caution around wild animals. So when heading outdoors, be aware of your pig-friendly surroundings, keep your distance, and carry a big stick.

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Moose: They’re easily among the top three of nearly every hiker’s must-see list in places like Canada and Alaska. They are massive (weighing up to 1,600 pounds and standing over six-and-a-half feet tall), hairy animals that appear to be so awkward and friendly that many assume they couldn’t possibly be aggressive. But that’s not always the case. In fact, there are more moose attacks in Alaska than black bear and grizzly attacks combined. There’s good news though: It’s usually not hard to avoid a violent encounter with the largest member of the deer family.

Moose aren’t as docile as they may seem

The long, spindly legs, droopy nose, and furry bell (that’s the dangly bit that hangs from the underside of the animal’s chin), give moose the appearance of something not only entirely harmless, but a little goofy, too. Throw in pop culture references like Rocky and Bullwinkle, and the general perception is that moose are just big, lumbering herbivores that wouldn’t hurt a fly. And while that holds true most of the time, moose, if provoked, can be just as dangerous as the clawed and fanged omnivores that people usually worry about in the wild.

For starters, moose can run up to 35 mph, which is at least two times faster than the average person. Plus, they outnumber bears nearly 3 to 1 in Alaska—where the largest North American moose subspecies resides—and they wound 5 to 10 people annually. Compare that to an average of two bear attacks per year in North America across the continent.

How to avoid encountering a moose

Although moose are everywhere in Canada, Alaska, and in some parts of the northeastern U.S. and Colorado Rockies—you may even spot one in someone’s garden or on the golf course—these animals are relatively easy to avoid.

Pat Lampi, who lives in Anchorage, Alaska, and is the executive director at the Alaska Zoo, regularly comes across moose both on his commute to work and during activities like hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing. He’s never been charged by one, likely because he knows a few things to keep in mind to keep himself and the animals safe.

For starters, moose may feel threatened, protective, or surprised if you get too close, so make your presence known. Much like bears, mountain lions, and many other wild animals, the mere sound of human voices is often enough to warn them of your approach and send them into hiding. While in moose country, make sure to stay noisy: talking loudly, singing or clapping from time to time are always good ideas. It might make you feel silly, but you won’t surprise a moose when you round a corner.

It’s especially important to keep your distance during the late spring and summer, when female moose (known as cows) are with their calves and are more likely to protect them against predators by any means necessary. “They see anything as a threat to their babies,” Lampi says.

Male moose, or bulls, on the other hand, are more aggressive in the fall, near September and October, when they begin to shed the velvet on their antlers and the annual rut, or mating season, begins. “That’s when they lose their minds,” Lampi says. “They’ll fight with anything that crosses their path: another moose, a swingset, Christmas lights, anything.” Get between him and a female and all bets regarding safety are off.

Watch out for red flags

Fortunately, for innocent passersby, there are often signs that a moose is perturbed and likely to charge. First, take a look at the ears. Most of the time, a moose’s ears will flick this way and that, but if they are pinned backwards, the animal is agitated and it’s time to walk away quickly. Next, to further warn you that the animal wants its space, the hair on its shoulders will stand up on end like a growling dog or a hissing cat. Finally, if the moose licks its lips, it means it’s about to charge and, “you should be finding some other place to be,” Lampi says.

If a moose does charge, get moving. The first thing is to try to get something solid between you and the moose—a building, tree, fence, any barrier will do. Once they feel that you’re not a threat, they’ll move away. Neglect to do so, and you might be too close for comfort when the animal kicks out with its front legs or turns their antlers—which can span up to six feet across—into a plow.

Stay safe (for your sake and the moose’s)

Though there are countless examples in the media of individuals who could’ve used some reminding, it goes without saying that you should never feed or provoke a moose. Lampi has heard of people throwing snowballs at a moose, which made the animal angry and resulted in an innocent bystander getting trampled. Dogs, too, can incite violent behavior, especially if they are off-leash and barking at moose, so keep control of pets when you’re outdoors.

Lastly, Lampi beseeches outdoor enthusiasts to leave their headphones at home. Sound is often one of the first signals that something large is looming around the corner or behind the bushes, and if music is flowing from your earbuds, you likely won’t hear it. Lampi tried to warn a fellow cross-country skier one winter that an injured and irritated bull moose was ahead, but because of headphones, the skier didn’t hear the warning and the only thing that saved him from an attack was the fact that the moose’s injured leg buckled under its weight when it reared to stomp and instead fell to the ground.

Like with most creatures in the wild, avoiding unwanted encounters has more to do with our behavior than theirs. “It comes down to respecting wildlife,” Lampi says. Keep your distance, don’t provoke the animals, and react responsibly to keep both yourself and the moose safe.

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Snakes have a reputation problem. In both fiction and real life, we frequently hear about life-threatening attacks from these reptiles—but actual venomous snakebites happen far less often than you might think.

Researchers estimate that, in the United States, snakes bite about 3,000 to 5,000 people each year. The exact number is hard to gauge, because many bites are mild and require no treatment. Even the highest estimates only go up to 8,000, which boils down to fewer than 1 in 37,500 people bitten by a venomous snake in a year. Snakebite deaths are even more rare, with an average of five per year in the U.S.

“Your chances of death by snakebite are close to 1 in 1,000. Those are pretty good odds,” says William Hayes, professor of biology in the Department of Earth and Biological Sciences at Loma Linda University. When we spoke, Hayes was driving to work and warned me that he might have to call back if he saw a dead rattlesnake on the road, because he would have to investigate the cold-blooded creature.

Like Hayes, I have long been a fan of legless reptiles. I have fond memories of scouting in the Ohio woods for garter snakes and watching, mesmerized, as a rat snake tried to swallow a bullfrog in the reeds surrounding my grandparents’ pond. Even when a garter snake bit me on the wrist (after I used it in a brief tug-of-war with my cousin), I didn’t become disillusioned—it was my mother who panicked and rushed to dress my wound.

Why was she so afraid? Hayes says two primary theories attempt to explain why so many people freak out around snakes. Evolutionary biologists say an innate fear is likely built into our psyche; Hayes thinks it’s more likely due to conditioning.

“We’ve been taught to fear them,” he says. “It doesn’t help when the media sensationalizes their danger.” He and his colleagues are weary of the poor portrayals of these reptiles, but many people still feel wary about his scaly pals.

And perhaps for good reason: When they do happen, venomous snakebites are nasty. Even if death is an infrequent occurrence, a bite can cause permanent disfiguration, damage kidneys and joints, and cost more than half a million dollars to treat. Most bites require roughly 14 to 70 vials of antivenom, billed at up to $10,000 per vial. “The antivenom alone can bankrupt you,” Hayes says.

Sure, you could avoid all contact with the outdoors during the times when snakes are active—their mating seasons occur during the mild temperatures of spring and fall. But that’s a touch over the top. Instead, cultivate a healthy respect for venomous reptiles and follow a few simple guidelines.

Keep your distance

If you’re hiking—or really spending any time outside—in a snake-rich area, keep an eye out for the legless animals. Gardeners and hikers, for example, should watch where they put their feet and hands.

I’ve found this advice personally beneficial on at least one occasion. In February 2016, I went hiking outside of Brisbane, Australia—a country that’s home to eight of the 10 deadliest snakes in the world. When I saw a venomous eastern brown snake lying just a few inches from my boots, I knew it would behoove me to step back, hold extremely still, and patiently wait for it to cross the trail before I pushed onward. My heart was certainly racing for several minutes following the encounter, but according to Hayes, I took the first step (literally) toward ensuring my own safety.

“Take two steps back, Jack,” Hayes tells kids when teaching them about reptile safety. Most snakes can only strike from a distance of about half their body length. As long as you’re several feet away, they can do no harm.

Not that snakes want to bite you in the first place. They’re more concerned with a speedy getaway than snapping at potential predators.

Don’t antagonize

Oddly enough, the most straightforward way to safeguard yourself against bites is to be female. At the hospital associated with Hayes’ university, a staggering 80 percent of bite victims are boys and men.

It’s not that snakes have it out for the male sex. The problem is that men are more likely to antagonize these reptiles. “Snakebites are associated with the two most dangerous chemicals in the world: testosterone and alcohol,” Hayes says.

For example, 45 percent of those aforementioned bites happen because someone is interacting with the snake, attempting to handle it, or poking it with a stick. A further 20 percent involve alcohol.

This is an easy problem to avoid: Keep your distance from any snakes you see. While you’re at it, don’t go hiking while drunk.

Cover your skin

When you do go hiking in the spring and fall, read up on the area you’ll be traversing. If snakes are common there, wear protective clothes. This doesn’t require anything fancy, just the same gear hikers should already be wearing: long sleeves, pants, and close-toed shoes.

This outfit shields you from poison ivy and bug bites, but also helps protect you from snakebites. Studies have shown that fabric reduces the amount of venom injected, and less venom equals a less-serious injury.

How to treat a snakebite

What if, despite all your precautions, you still suffer a snakebite? You may have heard about first aid practices such as applying cold compresses or electric shocks, cutting and sucking out venom by mouth or with a store-bought extractor, wrapping a tourniquet, or even making a poultice from the snake’s head. Here’s the thing—none of these remedies work, and they often cause more damage.

“There’s only one viable treatment currently, and that is going to a hospital and getting antivenom,” Hayes says. The longer the venom is in your system, the more damage it can cause to your tissue. That means the sooner you receive treatment, the better.

So the best tools to keep on hand are the ones that will get you to a hospital as quickly as possible: a cell phone, a good friend, and a set of car keys.

If a snake strikes, first take a good look at the culprit (or even snap a smartphone photo) so you can help doctors identify the species, but don’t delay or try to track the animal—an expert should be able to diagnose your attacker from the bite itself. This will tell the hospital which type of antivenom you will require. Next, arrange for a ride to the hospital, either by ringing up a rescue unit or having your friend drive you at a brisk speed. En route, you should call ahead to the hospital so they’re ready for your arrival.

Snake venom isn’t all bad

In all likelihood, you will never receive a snakebite that requires antivenom treatment. But you might encounter a touch of snake venom in other forms. In fact, a good number of pharmaceuticals derive from this substance. They treat a wide variety of ailments, including chest pain (Aggrastat), high blood pressure (Capoten), and wrinkles (Syn-ake).

Venom might even find a place in brain surgery. At Loma Linda University, Zachary D. Travis, a Ph.D. candidate studying under Dr. John H. Zhang in the School of Medicine, is currently leading a study on venom preconditioning. So far, their work has shown that a protein found in the venom of the Papuan black snake reduces bleeding and brain swelling following neurosurgery.

In fact, the life-saving benefits of venom help shine a much kinder light on the animal Hayes and I both love.

“They’re beautiful creatures,” Hayes says. “They’re inquisitive, they want to avoid confrontation—I just think they deserve more respect and better treatment.”

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In 2005, 17-year-old Alex Messenger was on the trip of a lifetime: a 600-mile canoe trip through the subarctic Canadian tundra with five of his friends. They planned to be out in the wilderness for 42 days, paddling, camping, and enjoying the solitude. But all that changed when Messenger went on a short solo hike and was mauled by a grizzly bear.

As Messenger crested a ridge, he came face-to-face with the bear, an encounter that surprised both of them. The grizzly was threatened by Messenger’s presence and tried to intimidate him with a few bluff charges, then attacked, swiping at his back and face and clamping its large jaws around his leg, barely missing his femoral artery—a bite that would’ve been fatal.

Miraculously, Messenger survived to tell the tale and went on to work as a wilderness guide and search and rescue volunteer. Now he knows a little something more about bears and, more importantly, how to avoid and survive an encounter with an animal at the top of the backcountry food chain. His book about how he survived the attack, The Twenty-Ninth Day, comes out in November.

Grizzly bears are not to be messed with

“I was incredibly lucky,” Messenger says. Not only did he survive, but despite large wounds on his leg, immense pain, and having lost the tips of two toes, he escaped the ordeal without any life-threatening injuries.

Grizzlies, after all, are large animals with built-in defenses: claws up to 4 inches long (as long as a human finger) and a body weight of up to 850 pounds. They can run as fast as 35 miles per hour—faster than the top speed of an Olympic sprinter—and stand as tall as 8 feet when on their hind legs. They are definitely not the sort of creature you want to meet in the woods. They’re omnivores, so they feed on salmon, squirrels, and even moose, but also berries, nuts, and vegetation. A lot of it.

Still, bears rarely attack humans. In fact, in 2014, most backcountry fatalities in North America (83) were due to falls, and 12 people died from simply getting lost, whereas only two were related to grizzly attacks. But if bears feel threatened, they will defend themselves.

Protect yourself while in grizzly country

Naturally, the objective is to avoid a grizzly confrontation altogether. Most hikers will go their whole lives without spotting one in the wild, let alone meeting one on the trail.

When you venture into their domain, hike in groups. In general, there’s safety in numbers, no matter which animal you encounter. More people means more noise, too, so talk, sing, and clap frequently. Don’t be shy. Most bears, when they hear noises they aren’t used to, will make themselves scarce and you’ll never even know they were nearby. Since the last thing you want is to surprise a bear—that’s usually when you force them into an attack—making noise is especially important when approaching blind corners, popping over ridges, or moving around obstacles such as large boulders.

If you’re thinking about getting bear bells—those jingling contraptions you strap onto your backpack or ankle—you might want to reconsider. “The jury’s still out on whether or not they’re effective,” Messenger says.

Finally, one of the most important things you can do to protect yourself in bear country is to always carry bear spray. Chances are you’ll never use it—most hikers won’t—but having it could save your life. Just don’t spray any around your tent or on your body as a precaution, as the smell can actually attract bears. It’s only effective if sprayed directly at the animal.

As easy as these tips may sound, Messenger neglected all of them on that fateful hike in 2005.

What to do if you run into a grizzly

Keep in mind that the strategy for surviving a stand-off with a grizzly is much different from the approaches that may work with other bears. Black bears, for example, are smaller, lighter, and more easily scared off.

Grizzlies, on the other hand, are big and they know it. If you ever find yourself face-to-face with one, don’t panic and don’t run. As we’ve said, you can’t outrun a grizzly. Even if you tried, the bear would likely pursue, which would make it angrier and even more dangerous. Contrary to what you’ve probably heard or seen on TV, you also shouldn’t climb the nearest tree. Bears are adept climbers and most likely better than you at it.

Instead, try not to look like a threat. Avoid eye contact, back away slowly, and speak to the bear in a calm tone. Yelling will only make the situation worse.

“I handled that initial encounter right,” Messenger says. “I held my hands up and said, ‘Whoa bear. Hey, bear. It’s OK, bear.’” It was exactly what he had been trained to do.

If the bear is far off, just find another path that puts plenty of space between the two of you (at least 100 yards), and do it in a way that does not attract attention. But if the bear is within charging distance (50-100 yards), it has the upper hand and it becomes critical not to perturb the animal any more than you already have.

If the bear turns and moves away, you’ve done your job and you should make a prompt, but wary, exit in the opposite direction. If it charges, use your bear spray. Always keep it where you can reach it within 1 second. If you have to fumble to remove it from a pocket or a bag, it won’t do you any good. Spray it toward the bear’s face when it’s about 30-60 feet from you.

If you don’t have bear spray and the animal attacks, play dead by laying face down, interlocking your hands behind your neck to protect it, and spreading your legs wide to keep from being flipped onto your back. Messenger knew this was the right move, but he wasn’t sure when to do so and failed to practice. Ideally, he should have played dead as soon as the bear started charging.

Instead, he dodged several charges, getting a swipe across his back and a slap across his face in the process, which likely aggravated the bear further. Without bear spray—he’d left it in his tent—Messenger also threw a hard Pelican case holding his camera at the bear. It’s a tactic he now doesn’t recommend, since it also likely made the grizzly angrier.

“That does not align with what you’re supposed to do,” Messenger says, laughing. But after the animal bit his leg and knocked him out, he played dead “very effectively,” he remembers. Usually, if a bear perceives the threat has been neutralized (no matter the reason), it will leave you alone.

The only time you should fight back instead of playing dead is if the grizzly is actively trying to eat you, which is extremely rare.

Prepare for everything

Whether or not you think you’ll ever encounter a grizzly bear, it’s important to know how to react. Imagine different encounters you might have with a bear (across a river, while in your tent, a surprise during dinner) and plan what you will do in each scenario. Messenger says the moment he saw the bear that attacked him, he immediately began running through the survival scenarios he’d learned during training.

“If you pre-visualize it in your mind and think through the process of what you’re going to do, you’re more likely to do those things,” he says. “If you don’t, your brain is just going to wing it, and maybe panic.”

Some hikers choose handguns for bear defense, but “that’s a sad outcome for the bear if bear spray would have worked,” Messenger says. Besides, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and bear biologist Stephen Herrero, encounters where firearms were involved essentially doubled a person’s chances of serious injury.

If you’ll be hiking in a park, it’s also a good idea to check with rangers before you head out to see if there have been any bear sightings or activity lately. They can tell you if you should be on alert and whether to avoid certain areas altogether.

Respect the bear

Despite his gruesome encounter, Messenger has tremendous respect for grizzly bears, holding no ill will toward the one that mauled him. “It was just a bear being a bear,” he says. “You can’t fault it for that.” The woods and wild places are their domain, after all—we’re just guests passing through.

Messenger is fully recovered now, though a sporadic nagging pain in his leg remains. These days, he still frequently spends time outdoors in grizzly country, but when he heads into the woods, you’d better believe he always knows where his bear spray is.

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In 2012, a 6-year-old boy was attacked by a mountain lion while walking through a parking lot with his family in Big Bend National Park in southwest Texas. The animal, likely an older one desperate for food, and possibly the same cat that had menaced another group earlier that day, grabbed the child by the face and tried to get away, but the boy’s parents fought back. They saved their son’s life, and while he did sustain a few cuts and puncture wounds on his face, his physical injuries were not serious.

Fortunately, these kinds of encounters are rare, and deaths, even rarer. Prior to 2012, the last mountain lion attack in Big Bend was in 2003, and that victim also walked away with only minor injuries. You see, mountain lions—also known as cougars or pumas—are solitary creatures that tend to stay out of sight and away from hikers. This makes attacks even more surprising.

But even if attacks are rare, you should still be prepared when you step into terrain mountain lions call home—a vast area that spans from Mexico to the Canadian Rockies, California to Florida.

Mountain lion attack facts

There are around two dozen mountain lions living on the 1,252 square miles of land that comprise Big Bend, but according to Cathryn Hoyt, a ranger at the park, no one has ever been killed by one there. Fortunately, they’re easy to scare off, especially since the ones that do attack humans are often unable to hunt their usual prey and are weak and desperate to begin with. That doesn’t mean there are no sightings, but visitors most often spot cougars hiding in the bushes or perched in mesquite trees alongside the road.

While sightings don’t happen often, attacks are even less frequent: Between 1953 and 2003, there were 15 attacks in the park, and just “a few” have been reported since then, Hoyt says. And the statistics for mountain lion encounters nationwide are similarly low: in the last 100 years, 125 attacks have been reported and fewer than two dozen were fatal. To put that in perspective, bees, wasps, and hornets kill about 60 people each year, according to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

What to do if you encounter a mountain lion

One of the most common misconceptions about mountain lions is that if you’re attacked, you should curl into the fetal position and protect your neck. But Hoyt says that’s all wrong. “Fight back. Kick, and scream, and punch, and gouge, and do whatever you can,” she says. If possible, use any tools you have with you. Pocket knives, a backpack, trekking poles—anything that can be used as a weapon.

But this is the worst-case scenario. Ideally, hikers should keep the situation from escalating to a fight, which usually comes down to spotting the animal early enough.

For starters, don’t run. Running makes you look like prey, which is the last thing you want. Besides, mountain lions can bound up to 40 feet when running, leap 15 feet, climb trees, and sprint up to 50 miles per hour—you won’t outrun one. Not even Usain Bolt, the greatest sprinter ever, could. Your best chance to escape unscathed from such an encounter is to stand your ground and make yourself look as big and formidable as possible, maintain eye contact with the animal, speak loudly and firmly at it, and slowly back away.

If that doesn’t work, throw rocks or branches in its direction to make yourself seem like more trouble than you’re worth. And the key to all wild animal encounters: stay calm. If you lose your cool, you could lose your level-headed advantage.

When hiking with children, keep them close. The smaller the child, the easier a meal they’ll be for a hungry and desperate predator. Keep them within arms reach when hiking in mountain lion country, and if you see an animal, pick up small children and keep them from running. It’s always a good idea to hike in pairs or a large group instead of alone.

What to look for in mountain lion country

Mountain lions aren’t easy to spot or track. Their dens tend to be high up in cliffs or rock faces, and even though they are typically more active at dawn and dusk, they stay hidden most of the time. You’re unlikely to stumble across one’s home, but if you spot a footprint or hear something large moving in the bushes, stay alert and move on without running.

Mountain lions are more likely to be aggressive if they are protecting something like a den or a recent kill. Mountain lions bury their kills and come back to feed off them for several days, so if you stumble upon a half-buried carcass, switch to high alert and make a quick, but wary, getaway. “If they feel someone is threatening their food, they’ll protect it,” Hoyt says. It’s an encounter that could end violently.

The cats that usually attack humans tend to be either very old or very young, ages at which it’s hard for them to hunt for normal prey like deer, raccoons, or feral hogs. As a result, they’re often desperate and hungry. If a mountain lion does attack, it’s often captured and euthanized to prevent additional attacks, so it’s in everyone’s best interest to keep a mere sighting from escalating to violence.

The bottom line

Time spent in the great outdoors comes with inherent risks, including those associated with wildlife. Simply stay alert, be aware of the risks and appropriate actions, and know that the trails you walk are often the same ones animals use. Above all, Hoyt says, “Whenever you’re in the backcountry, you need to be aware: This is their home, we’re just guests.”

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For thousands of years, tents have been the shelter of choice for those sleeping outdoors. They offer cover, a way to keep off the creepy crawlies, and a sense of familiarity—we sleep on a flat surface in a four-walled structure every other day of our lives; why not do so outside, too? But there’s a better option, an alternative that not only offers a nice night’s sleep in the great outdoors, but a comfortable way to commune with nature.

Hammock camping is growing increasingly popular among outdoors enthusiasts, mainly because hammocks provide such a good night’s sleep that you’ll wonder why you ever willingly slept on the ground. With a few bits of advice, you can ditch your tent and greatly increase the comfort and enjoyment you experience while spending a night in the woods.

Hammocks let you, a grown adult, get rocked to sleep like a baby. Once you’re swaddled in their warm embrace, all the swaying back and forth encourages you to nod off. In tests, people who napped or spent the night in a rocking bed or hammock fell asleep faster and slept better than those in a traditional bed. In fact, it changed participants’ brain chemistry by slowing down their brain waves, which indicates deeper sleep.

Hammocks do all tents can do, and more

Science aside, hammock camping isn’t for everyone, so think about your needs and what a hammock might offer in place of a tent before you think about swinging between two trees. For starters, consider comfort. A thick inflatable sleep pad certainly makes the hard ground more tolerable, but a hammock may be even easier on sore bodies that have been hiking for days.

“Hammock camping relieves pressure points, so your joints and muscles recover faster,” says Greg McEvilly, founder of Kammok, an Austin-based hammock manufacturer who fell in love with hammock camping after the first time he tried it. “It really levels up your sleeping experience.”

Now, let’s talk about cover. Many think a tent offers more secure shelter, but that’s only in theory. Take rain, for instance—if there’s a significant amount of precipitation, the air inside most tents will still feel damp and clammy, even with sealed seams and waterproof floors. A hammock, on the other hand, hangs high above the mud and streams of water that form during a downpour. As long as you have a tarp or some sort of covering overhead, you’ll stay warm and dry.

[Related: How to stay warm when sleeping in the frigid outdoors]

A hammock also keeps you cooler than a tent in hot weather. When you’re suspended above the ground, air can move all around you, which offers relief when it’s 90 degrees and muggy. On the other hand, you’ll need to take extra steps in cooler climates to prevent that same convective heat loss.

“Cold butt syndrome is a big thing in hammock camping,” McEvilly says. Your best bet to combat it is with an underquilt, which hangs just below the hammock and traps in body heat. You can also use a sleeping pad or synthetic sleeping bag to protect your underside from the cool air below. Down-filled sleeping bags won’t work as well, because they compress under the weight of your body, shrinking the layer between your butt and the air outside. If it’s really cold, you might need all three of these options.

Finding good anchor points can be a challenge, but a hammock is often quicker and easier to set up than a tent, and can be hung in many conditions a tent wouldn’t fare so well—like hard or uneven ground. Also, quality hammock systems, complete with insect net and rain fly, tend to be lighter and pack down smaller than many tents, which is a definite plus for backpackers.

There are plenty of reasons to try hammock camping, but there is also a learning curve when it comes to adjusting to sleeping on a non-flat surface.

How to set up your hammock

First, find two mature, live trees at least 12 inches in diameter and 12 to 15 feet apart, McEvilly says. Wrap the straps—preferably ones that are 1 to 2 inches wide to protect the bark and delicate cambium layer of the trees—around the trunks at head height and clip the hammock in so it sags slightly (at about a 30-degree angle).

“If it’s pulled tight, you’re not going to have a comfortable night’s sleep,” McEvilly says. Make sure the lowest part of the hammock hangs at least 18 inches off the ground to ensure you’re fully suspended above the ground after you climb in.

After you’ve hung your hammock, set up your insect net (if you have one), and then your rain fly or tarp above it. A ridgeline—a length of cord stretched tightly above your hammock between the trees—will keep both from sagging. Stake out the corners of the fly to keep it taught or prop it up with trekking poles if your fly allows. The standard setup resembles an A-frame tent, where half the fly stretches out on each side of the ridgeline.

When it’s time to sleep, opt for a diagonal sleeping position instead of pointing your head toward one tree and your feet at another. This position will allow you to sleep in a slightly flatter orientation, which is more comfortable. Position yourself so there’s equal distance between your head and feet, and each end of the hammock. With this setup, you can sleep on your side just as comfortably as on your back.

Hammocks can make a good seat, too. If you’re sitting around cooking or chatting with your fellow campers, fold the fabric of your hammock in half lengthwise to provide a more stable seat.

[Related: How to build and extinguish a campfire without sparking a catastrophe]

If it rains, keep dry by setting your fly at the right height for the weather. In a light rain, mount the ridgeline and your fly higher, near the straps wrapped around the trees, so you can stand and walk around under cover. To deal with heavier rain, lower the ridgeline and fly to the height of the carabiners, where the hammock clips into the straps. This will help prevent rain from blowing into your hammock.

You can also keep your gear off the ground by clipping it into the carabiners, or you can opt for a hammock with accessory clips or stash pockets. This will allow you to store headlamps, water bottles, or bug spray within reach.

If you are willing to give it a try, hammock camping can provide a more comfortable and relaxing night’s sleep, which almost always means a better start to a day spent outdoors. Set it up right, find your sweet spot, and a night swinging under the stars may become your new favorite way to enjoy nature.

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My eyes widened and I flung my hand toward the windshield. “Buffalo!”

Our driver slammed on the brakes. We braced ourselves for impact. We were on a collision course, all of us certain the massive creature barreling toward us in the dark would slam into the side of our truck at any second. The vehicle couldn’t stop fast enough. We were in trouble. The cab filled with our panicked cries, and I clutched the dashboard, bracing for impact. Our rim-to-rim Grand Canyon backpacking trip was about to end before it began, shattered by a bison on a lonely road along the North Rim.

Then, just as the truck jolted to a stop, the animal swerved, missing us by mere inches.

We sat motionless in our seats, still yelling in terror. We nearly got bulldozed by a bison in a National Park. Gradually, our cries turned into nervous laughter as we realized we had made it through completely unscathed. All of us clutched our hearts, checked to make sure our pants were dry, and, shaking with adrenaline, exchanged excited exclamations. Once our heart rates returned to normal, we carried on, very slowly pulling into the next turnoff, eager to set up camp and abandon the road for the night.

Unfortunately, bison encounters like these aren’t all that uncommon, especially in populated places like national parks. My experience was likely just coincidence—we simply happened to drive into the path of a galloping bison—but many other situations that result in people being charged or gored by these creatures are avoidable.

Where the buffalo roam

Bison, often colloquially referred to as buffalo, are scattered across much of the U.S. The largest population can be found in western states such as Wyoming, Montana, and Colorado, but protected herds may roam as far east as Kentucky. The biggest single herd of wild bison, meanwhile (about 4,500 members), is in Yellowstone National Park, the only place in the States where bison have lived continually since prehistoric times.

But these car-sized creatures also live in close proximity to a lot of people—Yellowstone hosted more than 4.1 million visitors last year. This means park rangers have to work hard to keep man and beast living in harmony. Unfortunately, that’s not always possible. Despite the park’s best efforts, bison injure more people than any other animal within its 3,500 square-mile area, including bears. Fortunately, almost all bison attacks are entirely preventable.

Keep your distance

Bison may look like big, cuddly, slow-moving animals; they are anything but. The herbivorous ruminants can weigh as much as 2,000 pounds, but will run at speeds up to 35 mph (three times faster than humans), and jump over objects up to 5 feet tall. They’re agile, good swimmers, too, and have exceptional vision, hearing, and sense of smell. They’re most aggressive during their mating season in late July and August, and calving season in April and May.

Most of the time, bison seem to tolerate the presence of people, but if you come too close, they may lash out.

“Stay at least 25 yards away from bison,” implores Linda Veress, parks spokesperson for Yellowstone National Park. “All they want is their space.”

Invade that space and bison may charge if they feel threatened. If they do, they’re liable to toss or push people out of the way. In 2015, five visitors were butted, tossed, or gored by bison. In 2018, a woman was gored when the crowd she was in approached within 15 feet. Another was head-butted as she rounded a bend in the trail. Both escaped with relatively minor injuries, but no bison encounter should be taken lightly.

Veress and the rest of the staff at Yellowstone encourage people to not only stay back, but stay in their cars if bison are on the side of the road. Too many people try to see how close they can get to a bison for a photo, or turn their back to one for a selfie, then are surprised when it stands up or starts trotting in their direction.

“They’re wild animals. They’re unpredictable.” Veress says. “They act aggressively when they feel threatened.”

The trick is not only to keep your distance, but use your head. If you want to get a good look without endangering yourself or the animals, Veress recommends binoculars or a telephoto camera lens. And if they’re in or alongside the road, you may roll down your window to get a better look, but don’t get out of the car.

“If you cause an animal to move, you’re too close,” Veress says. That goes for public parks and wilderness areas alike.

Veress has had to follow her own advice on at least one occasion. While hiking in Yellowstone, in an area far from paved pathways and boardwalks, she encountered several bison standing on both sides of the path. Instead of tiptoeing through and hoping for the best, she went off-trail and walked around, giving the animals at least 100 yards of space while she kept a close eye on them. In similarly wild areas, where the beasts roam freely, it’s important to pay close attention to your surroundings, she says.

There’s not much else you can do

Unlike dealing with bears, mountain lions, and other wildlife, no amount of noise, waving your arms, or making yourself appear larger will increase your chances of survival when you’ve angered a bison. You could carry bear spray to discourage a charge, but unless you see the animal approaching from a long way off, you may not have time to use the spray.

If you happen to round a corner and find yourself in close proximity to an animal, back away slowly and quietly to show you’re not a threat and hope your appearance didn’t startle it. Your best course of action: keep your distance and stay alert. The best offense is a good defense.

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When it comes to quality outdoor gear, every piece is an investment. You pay for shiny new items you hope will last for years, but sometimes, parts and pieces get worn out. So what’s one to do when an otherwise functional piece of equipment has a malfunctioning feature? It’s not always necessary to trash it and drop a bunch of cash on a new model just because one small part has worn out. Often, breathing new life into well-used gear is simply a matter of repairing it yourself.

The outdoors industry is starting to see a lot more people doing exactly that, says Ron Simonds, owner of Boulder Mountain Repair in Boulder, Colorado. That’s good news for everyone involved. It keeps usable equipment out of landfills and cash in your wallet, for starters, but it also benefits the brands that make the gear.

Manufacturers including Patagonia, Osprey, Chaco, and Klymit offer warrantied repairs on worn gear—many have been doing so for decades—in an effort to keep customers happy with their equipment and more likely to return to the brands they trust when it’s time to update their kit. If you’ve purchased something from a company that offers this service, just send them whatever’s broken and they’ll patch or repair it, often for free, then return it to your doorstep in a matter of days or weeks.

But sometimes you need a fix right away. Whether it’s a broken tent pole at the campsite, a rain jacket that’s lost its waterproofing, or a peeling sole, you’ll occasionally need to perform your own repairs at home or in the field. And it’s not as difficult as most people think. It just takes a little know-how, the right tools, and a willingness to make it work.

Make it last

The No. 1 thing Simonds recommends for keeping gear in good working order is regular scrubbing. “Washing, washing, washing,” Simonds says adamantly. “I can’t stress enough how important keeping your gear clean is going to increase its performance and longevity.”

That goes for sleeping bags, jackets, and even tents. Frequent use often means sweat, and perspiration is the archnemesis of outdoor gear. It dissolves protective coating on fabrics, dries out down and causes it to lose its fluff and warmth, and eats away at waterproof coatings. But don’t just toss everything into the washing machine; special gear requires special care.

Down jackets and sleeping bags should be washed every 50 uses, or at least once a year. When you do, forgo regular detergent that can dry out and damage insulation. Instead, use a product specially made for cleaning down, like Nikwax Down Wash. If your jacket came with a waterproof coating that’s no longer keeping out the rain, wash it the same way you would a down bag and then coat it with a spray-on or wash-in waterproofing product.

Tents should be treated to a thorough cleaning every now and then, too. Especially when camping in dusty or sandy conditions, fine particles make their way into the zipper and damage that part every time you zip and unzip it. The solution: wash with cold water and a non-detergent liquid soap, then hang to dry. Next, hit the fabric with a waterproofing spray to add longevity.

When it’s time to store your gear after a trip, air out your tent, keep down jackets and sleeping bags in a breathable sack to encourage air movement, and don’t leave anything—including boots—in your car. The heat inside a locked vehicle can loosen the laminate and adhesives in new and repaired gear and cause them to peel. Store all your equipment in a cool, dry space to prevent mold, because once mold gets in your tent, it doesn’t come out, Simonds says.

Pack a repair kit

No matter how well you maintain your gear and check for damage before you leave, equipment malfunctions will still happen when you’re away from home and without a slew of tools. And it’s there, in the great outdoors, that you’ll often need to perform emergency repairs. So you’ll need to travel prepared.

“It’s pretty tough to fix things on the trail without the parts, so having a repair kit is really helpful,” Simonds says.

It doesn’t have to be extensive, but he suggests keeping on hand a needle and thread, patch kits to seal holes, tent seam grip tape, and one of his favorite items: split-bar buckles that allow you to replace broken buckles without having to cut and sew straps. Shoe glue offers a way to re-adhere peeling soles, rubbing alcohol cleans dirt for better repairs (while doing double-duty sanitizing cuts and scrapes), and duct tape or gaffers tape can serve as a solution for a wide array of problems. But make sure to remove tape from your gear as soon as you get home—the sticky residue is hard to get off if left on for more than a few days.

A repair kit will only provide temporary respite, but that’s often enough when you’re in the wild.

Learn how to make simple repairs

The most common fixes Simonds and his team perform involve zippers. Whether it’s a broken pull tab or a full zipper that needs to be replaced, it’s a tough task to take on yourself, especially on the trail. But there are a few things you can do to make things run a little smoother.

For a sticky zipper that doesn’t want to slide, try cleaning its teeth with a small brush and mild detergent first, if you have it. That will loosen any grit or grime. If that doesn’t work, rubbing candle wax along the full length of the zipper may work as a temporary lubrication fix. If none of that seems to help, it may be time to replace the whole thing. If just the pull has gone missing, you can use a safety pin or paper clip as a stand-in until you can get a replacement.

Broken tent poles are another easy—albeit temporary—fix you can perform on the go. Carry a tent pole sleeve (a metal tube just big enough for your tent poles to slide through), which can act as a splint if a pole has cracked or snapped. If you don’t have a sleeve, you can use a tent stake. Tape whatever you’re using as a brace over the broken section to keep your tent upright.

Punctures in inflatable sleeping pads, though often tough to locate, are usually easy to fix. Many even come with self-adhesive patches to seal small holes. If you’re having trouble finding the leak, you can sponge soapy water onto the inflated pad and look for bubbles caused by escaping air. Put pressure on the pad if bubbles aren’t immediately evident. Mark the area, dry it, clean it with alcohol, and apply a patch. Likewise, you can use a mesh patch kit or repair tape to patch small holes or tears in tents, too.

For rips in clothing, along tent seams, or in jackets or sleeping bags, use ultra-strong repair tape in much the same way you would patch a sleep pad—one of the most popular types is Gear Aid Tenacious Tape. If sewing is required, like with ripped seams and stitches, use a needle and thread made of a material similar to that of the gear you’re repairing. With a peeling tent seam, clean it, then paint seam sealer (there are multiple kinds based on the material of your tent) over the area and let it dry.

Replacement is sometimes necessary

But as responsible as it may be to repair gear instead of ditching it for something new, there are times it might be worth throwing it out. First, consider your needs and preferences. Would the item still work if the issue or damage were repaired? Is there a sentimental aspect to the equipment in question? Is there still plenty of life left in the fabric of your tent but the zippers just need to be replaced? Were you interested in updating your gear closet anyway? Do you have the budget for new stuff or would repairing what you already own save you some cash? Asking these questions can help you decide which route to take.

And if you decide to repair your gear, you can learn all kinds of tips and tricks online or at a local outdoor retailer. REI, for example, offers educational resources on their blog, and AIM Adventure U hosts an online gear maintenance and repair course. Because a little education (and regular maintenance) goes a long way toward making your equipment last.

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In the great outdoors, the smallest actions leave lasting impressions. Tossing a banana peel in the bushes or wandering off the trail to pick flowers may seem harmless, but every choice we make has the potential to alter the natural balance of our world. Over time, even the little things can add up to significant changes to our environment, especially when you consider the increasing number of people spending time outdoors.

That’s where the concept of Leave No Trace comes in. It’s a practice made up of seven principles that aim to help you do almost precisely what its name says: leave no trace that you were ever in the wild to begin with. That means minimizing the unavoidable effects we have on natural places while eliminating the avoidable ones.

This, of course, is easier said than done. Making matters worse, 90% of people who visit the outdoors are uninformed about Leave No Trace principles, according to Ben Lawhon, Education Director at Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics. That’s why his organization helps instill proper outdoor etiquette in as many people as possible, whether they’re going on a months-long expedition in the wilderness or just playing Frisbee in the park.

“Leave No Trace is not about perfection, it’s about action, about what you can do personally to individually reduce your impact,” Lawhon says.

Some of the principles are intuitive, while others require a little explanation. For example, most people know better than to throw a candy wrapper into the woods, but not everyone understands why it’s so important to stay on the trail or not transport firewood from one park to another.

Plan ahead and prepare

The old adage stands when it comes to Leave No Trace: If you fail to plan, you plan to fail. That’s because spending time outdoors—be it at your local park or in the Colorado wilderness—without everything you need often means your impact on that place will be greater. If you forget to bring a trash bag for a picnic, for example, you’re more likely to leave garbage behind. If you don’t have a bear canister when camping in bear country, you’re more likely to attract unwanted wildlife. Planning ahead can help eliminate many potential sources of environmental harm.

So consider what you need for the type of outdoor activity you’re embarking upon. Are you bringing a pet? Backpacking for several nights, or just hiking for a few hours? Is it supposed to rain, or will it be sunny? Will you be eating outside? Pack everything you’ll need, from dog waste bags to rain jackets. Zip-top bags are also useful. Use them to store trash until you find an appropriate disposal site or to wrap around your socked feet if you’re caught in the rain without a spare pair of dry socks.

Travel and camp on durable surfaces

Some land, especially in the American west, is made of what was once known as cryptobiotic crust. Now known as living soil crust, this type of surface is made of living organisms—including fungi, mosses, and lichens—that create a literal crust over the earth beneath. Walking or camping on this type of ground—which may not look that different from other dirt, but is often bumpy, clumped together, or blackened—can destroy delicate ecosystems that may take decades to recover.

But even in areas without this crust, camping on or hiking over land not cleared for that purpose can be harmful. Deviating from paths can widen trails, damage trailside plants, and cause erosion, while camping on fragile vegetation can scar the landscape.

If there are well-maintained trails, use them. Don’t take shortcuts between switchbacks. And if there’s living soil crust nearby, stay off it at all costs. When wilderness hiking, if there are no marked trails, don’t walk single-file, as you risk wearing a path where there shouldn’t be one. Pitch tents and set up camp on sandy surfaces, gravel, or hearty vegetation like dry grass if you’re camping in the backcountry where there are no designated campsites. Then when you leave, do your best to restore the area to what it looked like before you arrived. In a high-use campsite like those in state or national parks, stick to the well-worn areas that have been cleared specifically for camping.

Dispose of waste properly

At some point, most people who spend time outdoors will have to go to the bathroom in the woods. But improper disposal techniques can contaminate waterways, hurt wildlife, and spread disease. That goes for pet waste, too. As for litter, don’t burn it in a campfire or toss it in the woods. Not only can it attract wildlife and make them sick, but it doesn’t break down as quickly as you think. Even natural items like toilet paper, apple cores, and coffee grounds could take years to decompose.

Never go to the bathroom within 200 feet of running water. It’s fine to urinate on the ground, but don’t leave toilet paper. Bury it or bring it with you—a good use for those zip-top bags. Likewise, bury solid human waste, too. Dig a hole 6-8 inches deep with a small trowel and go in the hole, then fill it with dirt and disguise the area so animals or other hikers don’t find it. As for trash, dinner leftovers, and even feminine hygiene products: if you brought it in, bring it out.

Leave what you find

When hiking through the woods, or even meandering through a neighborhood park, you may be tempted to pocket an interesting rock or pick a pretty flower. A small fossil or rusty nail from centuries past may also be a tempting souvenir. But remember that every item you remove from its place also removes a piece of that place for future visitors. Moving things from one area to another can also spread invasive species: insects in plants and firewood, zebra mussels on boats, and even microscopic particles in the treads of your shoes. All are unintentional ways people can help invaders spread.

Instead, take a photo of that beautiful flower or unique stone, and leave the object where it is. Do the same for historic items like arrowheads, building materials, or pieces of pottery and, if possible, let park staff know the location so they can investigate.

Minimize campfire damage

Everybody loves a campfire when spending the night outdoors, but a campfire can do a significant amount of damage if it’s improperly built or managed. Wildfires and forest fires aside, hot coals and flames can scorch the vegetation and the ground below the fire, while over-collecting fallen branches or cutting down live wood for fuel can leave the surrounding area bare of resources.

If there’s a designated fire pit at your campsite—usually a metal ring or a circle of rocks built to contain flame and ash—use it, but only if you either bought firewood at the camp store or there’s enough old, fallen wood to collect nearby. Even if there is a fire ring, don’t start one if there’s a burn ban in effect where you are.

If there’s no designated spot, skip the flames or build a Leave No Trace-type fire. The latter involves mounding soil, sand, or gravel 6-8 inches thick and at least twice as wide as the intended fire on top of a ground cloth or a large garbage bag. Alternatively, use a fire pan (basically a metal trash can lid) set atop three or four rocks. Then arrange the wood and start your fire. When it’s time to extinguish, do it with water, not dirt or ash, and make sure the coals are no longer hot to the touch before going to bed or leaving camp.

Respect wildlife

Getting too close to wild animals can have disastrous ramifications. If they feel threatened, of course, they might attack. But even if they remain calm, approaching, handling, or trying to feed wildlife can make animals accustomed to people. That means they’re increasingly likely to become comfortable ransacking picnic baskets, invading campsites, and approaching civilization. If an animal changes its behavior because of you—whether that means it runs away, abandons its young, or stops eating—you’re too close.

Lawhon suggests using the “rule of thumb” when encountering animals in the wild: if you can hold up your hand at arm’s length, close one eye, and cover a nearby animal with your thumb, you’re likely far enough away to stay safe and prevent the animal from feeling threatened.

Be considerate of other visitors

The rules of common courtesy apply outdoors, too. That includes being polite to other hikers, stepping aside to let others pass, and keeping excess noise—including music—to a minimum. Music and shouting can disturb both wildlife and the peacefulness many seek when outdoors.

If you simply must have music, use headphones. And if traveling in a group, keep loud talking and shouting to a minimum. When crossing paths with people headed in the opposite direction, offer to step aside and give them the right-of-way. Generally, those going downhill should yield to those going up, and if someone faster is coming up behind you, step aside and let them pass. Communication is key.

Leave no trace

To best put the principles into practice, ask yourself, “Would this item be here or would this area look like this if I had never come through?” Answering that will ensure you’re minimizing your effect on nature.

“It’s about doing the best you can,” Lawhon says. “It’s not an all-or-nothing prospect. It’s about learning and about making responsible decisions in the outdoors.”

And it’s certainly not just for hikers or avid outdoors people, but for everyone who spends time in nature.

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Nothing tastes better—or makes prepping dinner easier—than walking out your back door to grab lettuce or tomatoes from the garden. Fresh produce contains more nutrients, tastes better, and is often cheaper than the fruits and veggies at your local farmers’ market. But gardening also requires more time and effort, not to mention space and a green thumb.

Fortunately, there’s a solution: hydroponic farming. It involves less space, time, money, and effort than traditional in-the-soil gardening, and yields spectacular results jam-packed with nutrients.

What is hydroponic gardening?

Hydroponics encompasses several methods of using nutrient-infused water to cultivate plants without soil. Aeroponic gardens, for example, use misters to bathe plant roots in nourishing water vapor, while aquaponic setups pump nutrient-rich water from tanks of fish or snails. Hydroponics also uses a number of different types of systems, from shallow, tabletop-style trays with irrigation lines for watering plants, to water-filled tanks full of floating plants with their roots immersed in a nutritive solution. Which to use will depend on what you’re growing and the space you have available, but tower systems—vertical hydroponic growing stands—are often the most popular, and make the most sense, for backyard gardeners.

No matter how you grow, your crops are nearly guaranteed to be more flavorful and nourishing than anything you’ll find at the supermarket.

That’s partially because keeping plants alive until they’re ready to be consumed prevents them from losing vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. On the other hand, the average piece of store-bought produce was picked 10-11 days ago and traveled 1,500 miles to reach the shelf, its nutritional value shrinking every day. That could mean store-bought produce has less than half of its original nutrients, according to Troy Albright, co-founder of True Garden and Tower Farms in Arizona. So, that spinach or kale you picked up at the supermarket probably isn’t as packed with vitamins and minerals as you think.

Another bonus of hydroponic gardening? Plants in hydroponic systems get just the right amount of water—it’s easy to over- or under-water traditional beds—so they tend to grow faster. Sometimes as much as 20-30% faster, which means more greens, tomatoes and herbs for the family table in a lot less time.

This is supported by a 2014 University of Mississippi study that found hydroponic tower gardening yields were up to 53% higher than traditional in-soil crops and that the nutritional content of the aeroponically-grown leafy greens and fruits far surpassed their store-bought counterparts.

Hydroponic gardening saves water

Although hydroponics sounds like a gardening method that requires a significant amount of liquid, it actually needs much less than traditional in-soil agriculture. Since hydroponic systems are usually closed, recirculating systems, the same small amount of water is fed through plant roots again and again, minimizing waste. Most systems use at least 95% less water than would be required in traditional gardening, which could mean using less than 1 gallon per head of hydroponically grown lettuce instead of 20 or so on a head planted in the ground.

Vertical hydroponic farms save space

While traditional vegetable gardens are popular with rural residents and suburbanites with generous backyards, half the people in the U.S. live in urban areas. Fortunately, even urbanites in studio lofts can grow using hydroponic systems, as they take up 90% less space than a soil plot. Albright, for example, is able to grow 10 times more in his vertical hydroponic greenhouse than he would if he used traditional planting methods.

Growing vertically also means you can use rooftops, balconies, and even sunny corners of your living room (or not-so-sunny corners if you have the proper LED lights), to grow vegetables and flowers year-round. Hydroponic towers from Lettuce Grow—they call them Farmstands—take up no more than 4 square feet. Other models may have a slightly larger footprint—the Tower Garden from Tower Farms covers 6.25 square feet—but can produce about as much food as a 40-square-foot raised bed.

Easy growing

If the water and space savings aren’t enough to convince you, maybe the reduced effort involved in planting a backyard garden will. Whereas traditional gardening requires raised beds, numerous bags of heavy soil, fertilizers, compost, constant weeding, and probably pesticides and herbicides, hydroponic systems require none of that.

“Watering is automated, weeding is eliminated, plants are more resistant to pests and disease, so the farmer isn’t constantly battling them,” says Jacob Pechenik, co-founder of Lettuce Grow with wife Zooey Deschanel and fellow MIT graduate Greg Campbell. “There’s no green thumb required.”

But there’s still a learning curve. While you can skip traditional fertilizers and pesticides (which means no chemicals on or in your food), you’ll still have to determine what nutrients you should add to your system to help the plants thrive. This is important because nutrient concentrations can change more rapidly in hydroponic setups than in soil. An imbalance of minerals like nitrogen, calcium, and iron can mean lackluster growth or none at all. The best source for this kind of granular advice is often the people who have been getting their hands dirty for a while, so if you want flourishing greens, check with experienced farmers or growers if you can.

The only potential downside to hydroponic systems is that they generally have to be plugged in. That means a continuous supply of power is required to keep the pump circulating water. However, the cost of electricity is usually quite manageable, Pechenik said.

There’s also the price tag to consider. Many all-inclusive, vertical hydroponic systems with pumps, lines, nutrients and 20-plus plant ports hover in the $400-$600 range, but smaller versions are available for as little as $200. Still, for raised beds, soil, irrigation lines, fertilizer, and gardening tools, you can often expect to invest at least twice that amount.

Some systems can be purchased as a kit, while others, like those from Lettuce Grow and Tower Farms, come with memberships and Community-Supported Agriculture programs, or CSAs, that also provide seedlings and advice to maximize successful harvests.

How to get the most out of your hydroponic garden

To get started with hydroponic gardening, figure out what plants grow best in the season, system, and region you’re looking to grow them in. Once you’ve got a list, “grow what you love to eat,” Albright says. That way, tending to and harvesting the fruits of your labor will be a joy.

Then, plant seedlings instead of seeds.

“Germinating seeds can be tricky, and success unpredictable,” Pechenik says.

Buying seedlings from a local nursery will not only get you off to the best possible start, but it’ll mean you’ll be harvesting your produce in much less time.

“With hydroponics we are able to bring food production closer to population centers with limited outdoor space,” Pechenik says. “It’s a more efficient use of time, resources, and space. And the flavor of the veggies you grow will be the icing on the cake, because they taste best—and deliver the most nutritional value—when you can harvest just before eating.”

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Anyone can get lost in the wilderness. Whether you’re an experienced backpacker or a day hiker, one wrong turn could send you to a wild place where you’re forced to rely on limited supplies and your own skill set. But if you hit the trail with the right tools, a clear plan, and a little extra know-how, you’ll be able to find your way back to civilization with poise and aplomb no matter where you end up.

Don’t panic

If sunset is fast approaching and you turn a corner you thought for sure led to a trailhead that’s nowhere in sight, your first reaction might be panic. For most, the mere notion that you might be lost is enough to trigger anxiety, but it’s imperative that you remain calm. Decisions made out of fear are almost never constructive and drastic measures taken without level-headed consideration can often make a bad situation worse.

Instead, Lindsay McIntosh-Tolle, a wilderness survival and navigation instructor at outdoor gear retailer REI, suggests you S.T.O.P. That means:

• Stop moving, because if you continue wandering you’re likely to get more lost.
• Think objectively so you can accurately assess the situation and avoid panic.
• Observe your surroundings, including the weather, available resources and any immediate risks.
• Plan to deal with the situation once you’ve got the full picture.

Keep in mind that not all wilderness threats are created equal. The most dangerous is a lack of oxygen, which could be the result of an avalanche or cave-in. The second is exposure to temperatures that are colder or warmer than your body can stand. A lack of water comes third, followed by a lack of food. Assess and address each risk in order of severity to increase your chances of survival in a serious situation.

Whether you can safely stay put and wait for help or daylight may depend on how well-equipped you are to combat these threats.

Decide if you’re staying or moving

To decide if you should bunker down or get moving, consider what you know. Do you truly have a sense of where you are in relation to where you’re supposed to be? Do you think you may have simply made a wrong turn a few minutes back and are just a bit off-course? If you’re confident you knew where you were a mile ago, head back to that point and start over. But if you’ve entirely lost your bearings and fear you’ve been heading in the wrong direction for hours, it might be best to wait. Blindly wandering may lead you to a place where rescuers already looked, prolonging your evacuation.

“If you have absolutely no idea where you are but you’ve told someone where you’re going, it might make more sense to stay put,” McIntosh-Tolle says. “You know somebody will be looking for you.”

Even if you think you know where you are, but it’s getting dark and you don’t have a flashlight, consider building a shelter and starting over in the light of day.

Ultimately, your decision to move will depend on your knowledge of the area. If you know you parked your car on a road that runs north-south and you know which way is east, you can probably find your way home. Likewise, if you know how to get to a familiar river or can see a landmark in the distance, those features can guide you.

Be prepared for anything

The risks you face outdoors, no matter how long you plan to be out there, are mitigated by preparation, even if you think there’s no chance of getting lost or trapped. In our day-to-day lives, we rely on technology and battery-powered navigation to help us on our way, but there’s rarely a reliable signal in the woods. Besides, because batteries die and cell service is spotty or non-existent, “the last thing you want to rely on when in the backcountry is something with a battery,” says McIntosh-Tolle.

Start by gaining general knowledge of the region you’re traveling to. Studying maps can help you familiarize yourself with the area, and McIntosh-Tolle suggests doing so before you take off. The better you know the place you’re going, including its terrain and landmarks, the better off you’ll be if you get a bit turned around.

Her essentials for every outdoor excursion are navigation tools such as a map and compass, a headlamp, sun protection, a first aid kit with water purification tablets, a knife, a fire starter, an emergency shelter, extra food, extra water, and spare clothes.

Extra food and water will ensure you won’t go hungry if you spend an unexpected night in the woods, spare clothes will protect you from unanticipated weather and temperatures, and something as simple as an emergency blanket can function as a shelter. McIntosh-Tolle prefers a headlamp over a flashlight because it allows her to use both hands while doing something like erecting a shelter or starting a fire in the dark. But really, any source of light will help if you’re stuck out overnight.

She also recommends a whistle in case you get lost, as the sound travels farther than your voice and uses a lot less energy than a cry for help. For reference, three blasts is the universal signal for distress.

But possibly the most important thing you can do before your trip is to share your plans with friends or family. That way, rescuers will know where to focus their search. Plus, simply knowing someone will miss you if you don’t check in can go a long way toward reducing panic.

Arm yourself with knowledge

Some backcountry knowledge is just good judgement. For example, don’t forage for food if you aren’t absolutely certain which plants are edible. Some mushrooms can be safely eaten, but others that look almost identical may be deadly if consumed. Likewise, take cues from your environment. Full, leafy plants are often found near water, so if your canteen is dry, flourishing plant life can help guide you to a refill.

But other information must be learned. The most important skill to acquire may be navigation, as there are many pathfinding misconceptions that are likely to hurt, not help, you. These include the belief that moss grows on the north side of trees or that running water leads to civilization. In reality, running water only leads downhill and moss grows on whatever side of the tree is wet, McIntosh-Tolle says. To avoid falling victim to such myths, stick with what you know to be true: the sun always rises in the east and sets in the west.

And if you want to get more advanced than that, numerous companies and organizations that support outdoor recreation offer classes that teach this essential skill. Some may even offer sessions focused on using the stars to find your way at night.

“A lot of [navigation] comes down to effectively knowing how to use your compass,” says McIntosh-Tolle. “A compass and the ability to read a map are core skills. Simply having them in your pack isn’t enough.”

One helpful navigational technique is “aiming off,” which suggests that if you know your car is east, you should head farther south than you believe necessary. That way, when you eventually turn east and hit a road, you’ll know your car is north of your current location. This will keep you from wandering in two directions, unsure of whether you should head north or south to find your car.

You’ll also need to keep track of your course and direction as you hike, preferably before you get lost. And if you’re traveling with a group, never allow only one person to know how you got where you are. If you have to split up, it’s much easier if you’ve planned, navigated and mapped your trek as a team.

Even after all this preparation and education, McIntosh-Tolle says hikers still need to rely on their intuition.

“Trust your gut. If you’re in a place where you’re lost and something doesn’t feel right, don’t wait another mile to start questioning that,” she says. “That keeps small problems from becoming big problems.”

The post How to keep from getting lost in the wilderness appeared first on Popular Science.

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Injuries on the trail are common, be they banalities like blisters or lacerations from overgrown foliage, or serious concerns like dislocated shoulders while rock-climbing or snake bites. Outdoor lovers know the wilderness comes with risk of bodily injury. But those who know best venture boldly into the wild prepared with a knowledge of what to do if harm should befall them.

There’s no guarantee that Google will be there to help when gashes, scrapes, or broken bones arise, and medical help isn’t always just a phone call or car ride away. The best medicine for any type of injury is preparedness, so it’s important to know what to keep in your pack for everything from a day hike to a month-long sojourn, plus how to treat common injuries and frequent misconceptions about wilderness first aid.

First aid to pack for your next outdoor adventure

The length and remoteness of your trip—a well-worn day hike trail? unmarked wilderness?—will dictate what you should put in your pack. Climate, altitude, and destination will play a part, too, but chances are, you won’t need bottles of antiseptic and a full splint kit if you’ll only be gone a few hours and the trail is easily accessible from major roads. Likewise, you should bring more than a few adhesive bandages and aspirin if you’ll be away from civilization for a days or weeks.

Tod Schimelpfenig, Fellow of the Academy of Wilderness Medicine and curriculum director at the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) Wilderness Medicine department, suggests starting with a small kit. Most of the time, the kind you can get at your local outdoor store will suffice. But if you prefer to build your own kit, he suggests packing a pair of nitrile or latex gloves, antiseptic ointment, bandages, gauze, larger dressings, an Ace wrap, tweezers to remove splinters, and a blister care kit.

For longer treks, the kit Schimelpfenig recommends is similar, but more robust. “Safety pins are always helpful,” Schimelpfenig adds. Transparent dressings come in handy, too and for blisters, nothing acts like a protective second skin like kinesthesiology tape. But his number one recommendation: consider what can go wrong and what access you’ll have to medical attention, cell service, or fellow hikers. “Prevention and planning can go a long way,” he says.

As for the bulky extras, while some find packing triangle bandages and splint kits bring peace of mind, Schimelpfenig prefers to improvise with items like handkerchiefs and tree branches, things he likely already has in his pack or can easily find on the trail.

Common wilderness injuries

Seasoned hikers aren’t often worried about snake bites and bear attacks; they know these sorts of encounters are rare at best. But broken bones, sprains, dislocations, cuts, and scrapes can pose risks that are just as serious if left untreated. According to Schimelpfenig, “There are some fundamental skills that you can learn that will help take care of people and possibly save their lives.”

The most common injuries in the wilderness are cuts and lacerations. While you might just throw a bandage on it and call it a day when you slice your shin in your own backyard, don’t underestimate how easily a small wound can become infected and cause much larger problems.

“Keeping wounds clean is difficult in the wilderness,” Schimelpfenig says. To do so, first, stop the bleeding and evaluate the situation. Is it over a joint, does it gape open, is it showing underlying structures? If so, time to call it a day and get to a doctor. If it’s small and non life-threatening, irrigate the wound with water that’s safe to drink and thoroughly clean out any debris or foreign particles. Add antiseptic and dress it with the appropriate bandage. Change the dressing and check for infection (swelling, redness or pus) every 24-48 hours.

For other injuries and accidents, Schimelpfenig recommends taking a wilderness first aid course through NOLS or at a local outdoor center. Proper training will not only teach you how to wrap a twisted ankle, dress a wound, and immobilize broken bones, but also introduce life-saving skills like administering CPR, stopping excessive bleeding, and maintaining an open airway. They also instill confidence and resourcefulness, which are necessities in the backcountry, Schimelpfenig says.

Common misconceptions about wilderness first aid

There’s nearly as much bad advice regarding wilderness first aid as there is good advice. You need to know the difference. You may have heard that sucking venom out of a snake bite or giving the bite area a mild shock will slow the spread of the poison. Unfortunately, the only remedy for snake bites is anti-venom, so don’t bother with other remedies; the sooner you can get to the hospital, the better.

Likewise, tourniquets often get a bad rap for doing more harm than good, but Schimelpfenig says otherwise: it’s a very effective method of stopping life-threatening bleeding. “Tourniquets save lives,” he says. “Limbs are not automatically sacrificed when a tourniquet is applied.” But do reserve the technique for severe bleeding only.

What to do with serious injuries on the trail

“The more remote you are, the more training you should have,” Schimelpfenig says. While most outdoorsy individuals can benefit from a 16-hour wilderness first aid course, those venturing far into the woods or the mountains may want to consider something closer to a 40-hour wilderness first aid or 80-hour wilderness first responder course. The longer you’re out there and the farther away from civilization, the longer you’ll have to care for yourself or someone else.

The first step involves being able to recognize threats to life, like obstructed airways, breathing problems, cardiac arrest, severe bleeding, or anaphylaxis. Recognize the signs and prioritize those issues so that you can thoughtfully and confidently address the major issue first while also considering secondary injuries that may cause discomfort, but aren’t life-threatening.

Lastly, be cognizant of where you’re going and what types of communication might be available or recommended. If you know you won’t have service, is the area where you’re hiking well-traveled? If so, even if you do get injured, there’s a good chance someone will pass by eventually. If not, consider packing a device like a satellite phone or personal locator beacon to call for help if you or a companion need it.

With the right training and gear, you can boldly embark upon the wilderness adventures of your dreams and be prepared for just about anything, come hell, high water, or twisted ankle.

The post First aid basics for your adventure in the wilderness appeared first on Popular Science.

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Your coworker keeps talking about how his niece bought a van and took a year off to roam the country. Or maybe you’ve simply seen the #VanLife hashtag pop up in your Instagram feed. Despite appearances, it’s not just millennials who ditch more conventional sleeping arrangements in favor of homes on wheels; families and retirees take to life on the road, too.

You can travel this way even if you don’t own a class D recreational vehicle or a full-size conversion van. The freedom to move to and fro with no set schedule and the chance to save hundreds on everything from hotels to restaurant bills—not to mention to forego sleeping on the ground in a tent—is available to just about anyone with a vehicle and a full tank of gas.

“Having the freedom to pack up and go in the blink of an eye was something that was very important to us,” says Emily Mandagie, co-author of TheMandagies.com, a blog where she and her husband Berty share their outdoor adventures. The duo recently completed a three-week driving tour of Utah’s National Parks, spending most nights bedded down in their Mazda CX-5. “We loved being on the open road to our next destination without having to pack up a campsite,” she says.

To travel like this, all it takes is a little creative outfitting, some preparation, and the willingness to pack light. Here are a few tips for enjoying that #VanLife—without a van.

Stay organized

Living, sleeping, eating, and traveling in your car can get very messy very quickly. To avoid losing your mind, you need to keep things organized.

Mandagie suggests using clear tubs for accessible storage. “This way, when it’s time for bed, you can easily move bins around for a quick transition from driving to sleeping,” she says. Then organize items by use. For example, place clothing in one bin, food and cookware in another, and camping and sleeping gear in a third.

To help keep pests at bay, store dirty clothes in separate bags or bins, and keep meal prep items in an airtight container. Always keep a trash bag or small can within reach to dispose of waste.

Of course, not everything has to go in a plastic box. Use the space under your seat or in the glove box to store useful items, like phone chargers and backup batteries, that you’ll want to have on hand. Mandagie also recommends bringing extra cash and storing it in a safe place, for small-town produce stands, cash-only businesses, and other incidentals you may encounter on the road.

Putting everything in its place will not only help you find everything when you need it. It will also prevent your car from turning into an indiscernible mess of clothing, food, and gear that you’ll have to sort through every night.

Find parking

When you’re spending nights in a car, the first hurdle to overcome is finding where to sleep. Instead of booking hotel rooms or Airbnb accommodations for each night of the trip, catching z’s in your car offers the opportunity to save on one of the costliest fees involved in road travel: accommodation. Plus, it lets you experience the outdoors more spontaneously.

So where does a traveler find a place to park? When you’re in an RV or large van, your only option may be a campground. This is a good choice for anyone who prefers unlimited electricity, water, and amenities like showers and laundry. But it’s not the only place to leave a smaller car overnight.

If you don’t mind roughing it a little, so-called dispersed camping is a great alternative. Also known as freedom camping or boondocking, this method involves parking for free overnight. The location can be anywhere from a Wal-Mart parking lot to a clearing in the woods a mile down a dirt path.

Apps and websites for finding sites like these abound. One useful resource is Freecampsites.net. Another is the Bureau of Land Management site, BLM.gov, because most BLM areas let you camp for free for up to 14 days.

Some big-box stores like Wal-Mart and Camping World also allow travelers to park overnight in their lots. However, this does not always hold true, so ask first to ensure you won’t wake up to a parking ticket.

Wherever you park for the night, make sure to leave no trace. You should take all your waste with you when you go, or at least leave it in designated trash receptacles.

Sleep better

Living and traveling in a car, as opposed to a full van, also gives you slightly less space to stretch out at night. Where a van often has room for a full platform bed or futon setup, complete with under-bed storage, smaller vehicles simply don’t have the headroom. Even if you can’t fit a queen-size mattress in the back, there’s plenty you can do to improve your vehicle’s sleeping conditions.

It starts with the setup. Mandagie says vehicles with back seats that fold forward and lay flat are a veritable must. When you put the seats down, there still might not be enough space to stretch out. Fortunately, you can create extra inches by pushing the front seats forward and stacking appropriately-sized storage bins in the floor space between where the front seats end and the back seats begin. This will offer as much as a foot of extra headroom.

To make this layout more comfortable, pack sleeping bags or blankets, sleep pads or inflatable mattresses, and pillows. Also useful are sleep masks to block out light, earplugs to drown out any background noise, and towels or window reflectors to serve as makeshift curtains. And don’t forget to crack a window or two!

Cook your own meals

Many converted vans and small motor homes have built-in sinks and hot plates to make dinner prep a breeze. But cooking a meal in a smaller vehicle is nearly as simple. It just requires that you bring along the necessary tools.

Mandagie suggests starting with a backpacking or camping stove (she loves her Jetboil) and compact or stackable cookware and utensils. As for the kitchen sink, pack all your cooking gear in a clear storage bin that can double as a vessel for doing dishes and washing up.

It also helps to plan your meals in advance. Opt for simple one-pot meals that are quick and easy to prepare, such as instant rice or pasta dishes. That way, you conserve fuel and keep clean-up to a minimum.

Mandagie recommends options like pancake mix and egg scrambles for breakfast, peanut butter and jelly tortillas and fresh fruit for lunch, and Cup o’ Noodles and freeze-dried meals for dinner.

When you’re done eating, use natural and biodegradable soap or plain water to clean up. Although you have environmentally-friendly suds, you still should avoid dumping any waste into rivers or streams.

Just because you don’t have a full-size van parked in your driveway doesn’t mean you can’t experience #VanLife. Even for those with more compact vehicles, life (or a couple of days) on the road is within reach.

The post #VanLife isn’t as hard as you think. You don’t even need a van. appeared first on Popular Science.

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Nobody’s going to summit Mount Rainier or trek through Yosemite’s vast wilderness on just a handful of trail mix. When you head into the backcountry, you need balanced, hearty meals to fuel your adventures.

But not all rough-and-ready sustenance gets the job done. Ideally, your food will fit three criteria: It must taste good, cook fast, and not require too much precious stove fuel. That’s why freezer-bag cooking works so well on the trail.

I discovered the brilliance of this method at age 18, while taking an overnight trek with my aunt. For the previous 10 years, ever since my first hiking trip with my dad, I followed my father’s food preferences. He has always been the kind of backpacker who doesn’t worry about the weight of his pack, stuffing in cans of beans, tins of tuna, and boxes of Velveeta macaroni and cheese.

My aunt, on the other hand, dutifully weighed and portioned her meals in advance, creating stunning single-serve bundles that cut packaging waste and eliminated the weight of unnecessary extra servings. Plus, there was practically no cleanup after the meal. My eyes were opened—freezer bags became my default for backcountry cooking. Here’s how you can follow my lead.

The freezer bag advantage

This preparation is cheap and easy, and it also saves waste, weight, and water. What you carry into the wild, you have to carry back out. But no one likes toting a pack stuffed so full of garbage that you can’t find your eating utensils. Most of that waste comes from the packaging around your trail food. So remove those boxes, tins, and plastic wrap and place all of your ingredients in one compact zip-top freezer bag before you leave home. When you eat its contents on the trail, all that’s left to throw out (or wash and recycle) is the one bag.

With no unnecessary packaging and perfectly-portioned servings, you’ll also have less weight to carry. This is of the utmost importance to backpackers, who often cut toothbrushes in half to save an ounce or two.

This cooking method also requires less fuel, because you don’t have to simmer the food over a flame: You just add hot water and let the meal cook in the bag. On top of fuel, you save water: Instead of rinsing cookware with your precious liquid reserves, there’s zero cleanup, so you can save the H₂O for the hike out.

Why build your own bags rather than buying pre-made freeze-dried meals? You can find backcountry fare lining the shelves at REI, but these meals cost about $8 to $12 on average. Plus, your options are limited, especially if you’re on a special diet. By crafting your own lightweight meals from grocery staples or bulk bins, you can save some cash and customize your meal plan.

Building your meal

A balanced diet is even more important when you’re on the trail. There, even the smallest deficiencies can seem monumental—just ask anyone who has backpacked the Grand Canyon in July without electrolytes or salty snacks. Fortunately, getting all the nutrients you need isn’t too difficult.

“Eat regularly, eat a variety, and eat often,” says Claudia Pearson, Rocky Mountain Rations Manager at the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS). “Those are the rules of food on the trail.”

Every meal you eat in the backcountry should contain three main components: fat, complex carbohydrates, and protein. Fat tops up your energy reserves, carbs offer a quick boost, and protein helps repair stress to your aching muscles. Salt and sugar play a part too, but at dinnertime, it’s all about refueling for muscle recovery and restocking your energy stores for tomorrow.

So when you craft your meal-in-a-bag, start with carbohydrates that cook quickly and easily, such as couscous, rice noodles, or ramen. Aim for starches that take no longer than five to seven minutes to rehydrate—otherwise, your carb may not cook fully with the freezer bag method.

Next, add a serving of protein like nuts or seeds, dried tofu, dried beans, or pre-cooked foil-packed tuna or chicken. If you opt for animal sources of protein, keep them separate in their foil-pack wrapping until you’re actually cooking the meal. That way you avoid spoilage.

And don’t forget the veggies. A few tablespoons of dried peas or mixed vegetable flakes offer necessary vitamins and minerals. To top everything off, bouillon cubes and dried spices add flavor.

It’s also worth your time to seek out foods that have the most calories for the smallest weight and size. Pearson says she often includes components like honey, peanut butter, coconut, chia, raisins, cheese, and powdered eggs, which are all nutritious and easy to prepare.

If you’re not comfortable creating your own recipes yet, we’ve provided a couple examples in the next section. Alternatively, Pearson recommends that you head to the grocery store and look for soups in bulk bins or instant cups. If you’re looking for prepackaged options, then dried refried beans, curried rice and vegetables, and ingredients like peanuts and miso paste all make for great freezer bag meals. Pearson regularly includes these foods in NOLS students’ meal packets.

“Your imagination is your only limitation,” she says. “It just has to taste good, that’s the bottom line.”

Recipes

Although you can build a meal yourself, I have a few tried-and-true recipes that have served me well. One contains meat, and the other is vegan.

Spicy Couscous

• 1/3 cup couscous
• 2 tablespoons freeze-dried peas or other vegetables
• ¼ teaspoon cumin
• ¼ teaspoon spicy chili powder
• ½ teaspoon dried cilantro
• ½ bouillon cube
• 1 tablespoon dried cranberries
• 1 tablespoon sunflower seeds
• 1 pouch of single-serve foil-pack chicken
• Salt and pepper to taste

Place all ingredients except chicken, sunflower seeds, and cranberries into a sealed double-zipper freezer bag before hitting the trail. At dinnertime, boil 1 cup of water and pour in enough to cover the couscous. Massage or stir the bag to mix the ingredients. Zip the bag closed, then wrap in a towel and let sit for five to seven minutes, or until couscous is soft, massaging once halfway through. When cooking is complete, stir the bag’s contents (if necessary). Then add chicken, seeds, and cranberries. For minimum cleanup, enjoy straight out of the bag, or transfer to a bowl if you prefer.

Vegan curry noodles

• 1 package of rice-noodle ramen, without seasoning packet
• ½ vegetable bouillon cube
• 2 tablespoons dried vegetables
• ¼ cup textured vegetable protein (TVP)
• ¼ cup Coconut milk powder
• 1 tablespoon curry powder or paste
• ¼ teaspoon ground ginger
• ½ teaspoon red pepper flakes, optional

Place all ingredients into a sealed double-zipper freezer bag before hitting the trail. At dinnertime, boil 1 cup of water and pour in just enough to cover the noodles. Massage or stir the bag to mix the ingredients. Zip the bag closed, then wrap in a towel and let sit for five to seven minutes, or until noodles are soft, massaging once halfway through to break noodles apart and encourage even cooking. When cooking is complete, stir the bag’s contents (if necessary). Again, you can eat out of the bag or move your food to a bowl before you dig in.

Take away your trash

After you eat your meals, pack up your tent, and check your boots for spiders, don’t forget to pack out your waste—freezer bags and all. As the non-profit Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics beseeches: Enjoy your world. Leave no trace.

The post Freezer bags are the secret to eating well on your next camping trip appeared first on Popular Science.

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